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Type: Discovered/Found

  • Ten-sided wave undulates around Saturn’s south pole

    Why in the News

    Scientists have found a decagonal wave, a standing pattern with ten sides, around Saturn’s south pole. It is the first time such a feature has been reported at that pole. The finding rests on images taken from space and ground telescopes between 2023 and 2025. Saturn’s north pole has been known for decades to carry a long-lasting hexagonal wave, so the planet now presents two polar polygons with different numbers of sides. The question that follows is why one atmosphere produces two different wave patterns at its two poles.

    What has been observed at Saturn’s south pole?

    1. The shape: A wave with ten sides encircles the south pole, the counterpart of the six-sided pattern long known at the north.
    2. The evidence base: It was identified from images taken by space and ground telescopes across 2023 to 2025, so it has been seen over a span of years rather than in a single observation.
    3. The motion: The whole pattern drifts slowly eastward around the pole.
    4. The oscillation: The decagon’s vertices, the ten corners where the sides meet, move back and forth on a cycle of 32 days.

    What do researchers think the feature is?

    1. It has depth, not just outline: The wave is treated as a vertical structure extending into the atmosphere, not a pattern confined to the visible cloud tops.
    2. The first candidate cause: Unstable winds are one proposed origin, meaning a fast circumpolar flow that breaks into a regular wave pattern rather than running smooth.
    3. The second candidate cause: A nearby anticyclone, a high-pressure rotating storm system, is the other proposed origin, forcing the wave from outside.

    How does this compare with the north-polar hexagon?

    1. The hexagon is old and stable: It was first seen in Voyager images in the early 1980s and observed again from Saturn orbit two decades later, so it has persisted across most of a Saturnian year.
    2. It is very large: The hexagon spans of the order of 30,000 km, wider than the Earth, and is understood as the path of a fast jet stream circling the pole.
    3. The wave number is what differs: A six-sided and a ten-sided pattern imply different jet speeds and different shear across the jet, so the two poles are not mirror images of each other.
    4. The south pole already carried a distinct feature: A hurricane-like polar vortex with a well-defined eyewall was imaged there in the previous decade, which is a different phenomenon from a polygonal jet.

    Why is Saturn’s south pole harder to study?

    1. No spacecraft is there now: The only orbiter to have studied Saturn from close range ended its mission in 2017, so all current work depends on remote imaging from Earth orbit and from the ground.
    2. Season controls the view: Saturn is tilted about 27 degrees and takes roughly 29 Earth years to orbit the Sun, so each pole is favourably lit only for part of that cycle, and the planet passed its most recent equinox in 2025.
    3. Resolution is the limiting factor: Telescopes hundreds of millions of kilometres away resolve polar detail far less finely than an orbiting camera, which is why a repeated pattern is easier to detect than its internal structure.

    Conclusion

    Two polar polygons with different side counts on the same planet is a constraint on any model of Saturn’s atmospheric circulation, because a single explanation now has to produce both. Whether the southern feature holds for decades as the northern one has, or decays within a few years, is the question the next stretch of telescope observation will settle. No dedicated mission to Saturn’s atmosphere is scheduled, so that answer will come from the ground and from Earth-orbiting instruments rather than from a return visit.

    Back2Basics: Cassini-Huygens

    1. It was a joint mission of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency to study Saturn, its rings and its moons.
    2. It was launched in 1997 and entered orbit around Saturn in 2004, becoming the first spacecraft to orbit the planet.
    3. It carried the Huygens probe, which landed on Titan in 2005, the first landing in the outer solar system.
    4. The mission ended in September 2017 with a deliberate plunge into Saturn’s atmosphere, chosen to avoid contaminating potentially habitable moons.

    Matching Previous Year Question

    “Which one of the following planets has largest number of natural satellites or moons ? (a) Jupiter (b) Mars (c) Saturn (d) Venus”

  • Restoration work on temple in Goa island unearths relics from 14th to 16th century

    Restoration work on temple in Goa island unearths relics from 14th to 16th century

    Why in the News

    Restoration work at the old site of the Saptakoteshwar temple on Divar island in Goa has uncovered relics dated between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries.

    What was recovered, and where?

    1. A guardian motif: A Kirtimukh motif is among the finds, and its presence marks a formal temple entrance rather than an open air shrine.
    2. A structural element: A carved capital of a temple pillar was also recovered, which is the load bearing head of a column and part of a built temple rather than a portable object.
    3. The find spot: Both were recovered along the old pathway running between Koti Tirth and Madhavachi Talli.
    4. The dating: The relics and remains have been dated to between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries.

    Why do the finds change the reading of the site?

    1. Distribution carries the argument: The elements sit along a pathway, so it is their placement rather than the value of any single object that supports the inference.
    2. A complex rather than a shrine: Architectural members of this kind, found together, indicate a temple complex rather than one isolated structure.
    3. A sacred corridor: The alignment links the site’s water body with its associated structures into a processional route.
    4. The extent is revised: The understood extent of the island’s pre Portuguese temple landscape is now larger than the surviving remains indicated.

    Why does Saptakoteshwar matter in Goa’s religious history?

    1. A principal Shaiva site: Saptakoteshwar is counted among Goa’s principal Shaiva sites and its deity is a form of Shiva.
    2. Kadamba patronage: The Kadamba rulers of Goa held Saptakoteshwar as their tutelary deity, and the name appears on their coinage.
    3. Displacement in the Portuguese period: The Divar temple was destroyed in the sixteenth century, and the deity was moved off the island to Narve in Bicholim, which lay outside Portuguese control at the time.
    4. A later rebuilding: The temple at Narve was rebuilt in 1668 by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, and worship has continued at that site since.

    Challenges to protecting incidental archaeological finds

    1. Restoration is not excavation: Material surfacing during repair work is lifted without the layer by layer record that dates it and relates it to what lies around it. Eg. The Divar elements were recovered along a pathway during restoration rather than from a documented trench.
      The Fix: Require a licensed archaeologist to supervise any ground disturbance at a historic temple site, with layer wise recording completed before material is moved.
    2. Most sites carry no legal protection: Statutory protection attaches only to monuments notified under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 or a State equivalent, and everything else depends on local custody. Eg. The Archaeological Survey of India protects roughly 3,700 monuments, a small fraction of the country’s stock of historic sites.
      The Fix: Notify a newly evidenced site under the State protection list as soon as dated material is recovered, rather than waiting for an excavation to conclude.
    3. A living temple changes faster than it is recorded: A site in continuous worship is repaired and rebuilt by its own community, which removes earlier fabric in the process. Eg. Cement plaster and modern tiling at working shrines routinely cover older stone members.
      The Fix: Complete measured drawings and photographic documentation of a living temple before any restoration grant is released.
    4. Conservation capacity is thin: Trained conservators, epigraphists and conservation architects are few relative to the number of sites needing attention. Eg. State archaeology departments in the smaller States operate with a handful of technical posts.
      The Fix: Fund State conservation units jointly with university archaeology departments so field documentation has standing capacity behind it.

    Conclusion

    The value of these finds lies less in the objects than in the boundary they redraw around a site long assumed to end at its surviving shrine. Whether that reading holds depends on a systematic survey along the corridor rather than on further chance recovery during repair work. The step to watch is whether the pathway and its surroundings are brought under a protected category before restoration continues over them.

    Back2Basics: Kirtimukh

    1. What it is: Kirtimukh is a fierce swallowing face carved as an architectural motif, the name meaning face of glory.
    2. Where it is placed: It is set above temple doorways, over deity niches and at the apex of arches, as a guardian of the threshold.
    3. Its origin story: Puranic accounts describe a devouring being created by Shiva that consumes its own body at his command and is then placed at the entrance to be honoured first.
    4. Its reach: The motif runs across Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India and into Southeast Asia, so its presence signals a formal temple structure.

    [2018, GS1, 10 marks] Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss.”

  • Excavation at Vaishya Tekri, Ujjain, sheds light on Ashoka’s Mauryan-era rule

    Excavation at Vaishya Tekri, Ujjain, sheds light on Ashoka’s Mauryan-era rule

    Why in the News

    An ongoing excavation at the Vaishya Tekri mound in Ujjain has uncovered a Buddhist stupa dated to the Mauryan period, adding physical evidence to the tradition that Ashoka served as Mauryan viceroy over Ujjain and the surrounding Avanti province before he became emperor. Ujjain’s connection to Ashoka has so far rested mainly on textual and traditional accounts, including his association with the city of Vidisha and with Devi, traditionally described as his consort during his time there. A dated stupa at Vaishya Tekri gives that tradition an archaeological anchor it did not previously have at this specific site.

    What has the excavation at Vaishya Tekri found?

    1. A Buddhist stupa dated to the Mauryan period: Excavators have uncovered the remains of a stupa, a dome-shaped Buddhist commemorative structure typically built to enshrine relics, at the Vaishya Tekri mound, with the structure’s dating placed within the Mauryan period.
    2. Located at a mound with a known but under-explored history: Vaishya Tekri has long been recognised as an archaeologically significant mound in Ujjain, but the current excavation is what has produced the specific Mauryan-period stupa evidence.
    3. Physical evidence for a previously text-based tradition: The tradition that Ashoka governed Avanti province from Ujjain as a Mauryan prince before becoming emperor has rested on textual and inscriptional sources; a dated Mauryan-period Buddhist structure at Ujjain itself gives that tradition a corresponding physical find.

    How does this connect to Ashoka’s association with Ujjain, Vidisha, and Devi?

    1. Ujjain as Ashoka’s provincial capital under his father: Textual tradition holds that Ashoka was appointed viceroy of Avanti province, governing from Ujjain, during the reign of his father, Bindusara, before Ashoka’s own accession as emperor.
    2. Vidisha’s connection through Devi: Tradition associates Ashoka with Devi, described as his consort during his time in the region, whom he is said to have met at or near Vidisha, a city close to Ujjain within the same Avanti province.
    3. Stupa construction consistent with early Buddhist patronage in the region: A Mauryan-period Buddhist stupa at Ujjain is consistent with the broader pattern of early Buddhist architectural patronage across the Avanti region during and after Ashoka’s association with it, including the well-documented stupas at nearby Sanchi.

    Back2Basics: Vaishya Tekri, Ujjain

    1. An archaeological mound in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, long identified as a site of historical significance within the ancient city associated with the Avanti Mahajanapada, one of the sixteen great kingdoms of ancient India.
    2. Ujjain’s ancient layers have previously yielded evidence of settlement dating from well before the Mauryan period, making it one of the longer continuously significant urban sites in central India.
    3. Its Mauryan-period association rests on textual tradition identifying it as the seat of Ashoka’s viceroyalty over Avanti province prior to his accession as emperor.
    4. Sits within the same historical region as Vidisha and Sanchi, both major centres of early Buddhist architectural activity.

    “[2022] Consider the following pairs :
    Site of Ashoka’s major rock edicts Location in the State of
    1. Dhauli — Odisha
    2. Erragudi — Andhra Pradesh
    3. Jaugada — Madhya Pradesh
    4. Kalsi — Karnataka
    How many pairs given above are correctly matched ?
    (a) Only one pair
    (b) Only two pairs
    (c) Only: three pairs
    (d) All four pairs

  • Sealed for 70 years, what BHU found inside 22 boxes from a Varanasi dig

    Sealed for 70 years, what BHU found inside 22 boxes from a Varanasi dig

    Why in the News

    Banaras Hindu University (BHU) opened 22 boxes on 20 August 2026 that had lain unopened for nearly 70 years, and found more than 10,000 artefacts, including painted black pottery believed to be nearly 3,000 years old.

    What is the Rajghat archaeological site?

    1. Location: Rajghat lies on the north-eastern edge of Varanasi, near the confluence of the Ganga and the Varuna rivers.
    2. Significance: It is one of the most important archaeological sites in the middle Ganga Valley.
    3. Historical identity: The area was part of ancient Varanasi, which served as the capital of the Kashi kingdom, also known as the Kashi Mahajanapad.
    4. Chronology: Archaeologists have divided the history of the site into six cultural periods, beginning around 800 BC and continuing up to the medieval period.

    What did the 22 boxes contain?

    1. The artefact count: The boxes held more than 10,000 artefacts in total.
    2. The dating anchor: Among them is painted black pottery believed to be nearly 3,000 years old.
    3. The object categories: The boxes contain sculptures, ancient coins, tools, stamp seals and objects made of copper, ivory and bone.
    4. A separate photographic archive: They also held around 3,000 glass slides and more than 5,000 photographic negatives documenting archaeological sites across India, including Rajghat, Manjhi, Ratnagiri, Ajanta and Ellora.
    5. Rare images within the archive: The photographs include rare images of idols of Vishnu, Shiva and Buddha, which are being examined and will be restored as part of the department’s conservation work.
    6. The condition of the containers: The trunks were found in an advanced state of deterioration, which makes the recovery and preservation of the material inside particularly significant.

    Why do the seals and inscriptions matter?

    1. Inscribed seals are present: Several of the seals recovered bear inscriptions, including some written in the Brahmi script.
    2. Who will read them: Researchers specialising in epigraphy at BHU will study them, and experts from other universities may be consulted where specialised expertise is required.
    3. What they can establish: The inscriptions can help researchers understand the scripts, systems of governance, and trade and economic systems of the periods in which they were used.
    4. Seals settled the site’s identity earlier: During the earlier excavations, seals and sealings bearing the name ‘Varanasi’ were found, and these findings helped establish the site’s connection with ancient Varanasi.

    Why did the material stay unstudied for 70 years?

    1. The site was found by accident: The first archaeological remains at Rajghat were discovered in 1939 during the expansion of the Kashi railway station, and were sent to the ASI for examination.
    2. The excavation ran for twelve years: Excavations were carried out jointly by the ASI and BHU between 1957 and 1969, under the supervision of BHU Professor A K Narain and the archaeologist T N Roy.
    3. What the excavations found: They unearthed remains of ancient settlements, including structures believed to be houses, terracotta objects, seals and other artefacts, which allowed researchers to trace the development of human settlement at Rajghat over several centuries.
    4. Documentation stopped short of study: Professor Narain documented the excavations in four volumes, and a large part of the material recovered was not studied in detail.
    5. The techniques did not exist then: The Vice-Chancellor noted that the objects were excavated at a time when advanced scientific techniques for archaeological research were not available in India.

    What happens to the material now?

    1. Three research teams have been formed: The department has constituted three specialised research teams to conserve and document the material.
    2. The stated purpose: The department has undertaken advanced research on its archaeological collections to allow scholars to reassess historical chronologies and produce new insights into ancient Indian civilisation.
    3. A parallel recovery is already under way: A month earlier, experts opened a box containing a human skeleton recovered from the same site, which had also remained sealed for around 70 years.
    4. Ancient DNA work has begun: A team specialising in ancient DNA collected samples from that skeleton for genetic and bio-archaeological analysis.
    5. What that analysis is expected to yield: The analysis is expected to provide clues about the people who lived in Varanasi around 1,000 years ago.

    “[2024] Consider the following information:

    Archaeological Site :: State :: Description

    1. Chandraketugarh : Odisha : Trading Port town

    2. Inamgaon : Maharashtra : Chalcolithic site

    3. Mangadu : Kerala : Megalithic site

    4. Salihundam : Andhra Pradesh : Rock-cut cave shrines

    In which of the above rows is the given information correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 3 and 4

    (d) 1 and 4

  • Ujjain’s Giant Stupa: Was Vaishya Tekri Bigger Than Sanchi?

    Why in the News

    Madhya Pradesh plans to excavate and restore Vaishya Tekri in Ujjain, a major mound believed to contain a Mauryan-era stupa. ASI suggests it may have been larger than the Sanchi Stupa, but its association with Ashoka remains unproven.

    What is Vaishya Tekri?

    • Located in Ujjain, an important Mauryan-era centre.
    • Excavated first in 1938-39 by the erstwhile Gwalior State.
    • Identified as a major stupa, not a natural mound.
    • 1938 report estimated its base at about 350 ft diameter and height at 100+ ft.
    • Dating to the 3rd century BCE was suggested from brick dimensions and coins.

    Key Archaeological Evidence

    • Core made of rammed blackish murum.
    • Exterior faced with brick masonry and mud mortar.
    • Finds included:
      • Punch-marked coin
      • Cast Avanti coin
    • A moat surrounded the stupa, with a western passage for worshippers.
    • An unusual bowl-shaped masonry base helped resist lateral thrust.

    Ashoka Connection

    • Tradition associates Ujjain with Ashoka’s viceroyalty.
    • However, the 1938 excavation did not establish an Ashokan connection.
    • The report only stated that the stupa could possibly be one of the stupas attributed to Ashoka.
    • Brick size and coins establish a period, not the identity of the patron.

    Prelims Quick Facts

    • Vaishya Tekri: Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh
    • Period: Mauryan, 3rd century BCE
    • Monument: Buddhist stupa
    • First excavation: 1938-39
    • Estimated diameter: ~350 ft
    • Sanchi Stupa height: ~54 ft
    • Key coin: Punch-marked coin
    • Agency: Archaeological Survey of India

    “[2026] Which of the following statements on the Amaravati Stupa and its relief sculpture is/are correct?
    1. It was located in the lower Krishna valley.
    2. In India, it was next only to the Sanchi Stupa in size.
    3. The Amaravati school of sculpture made a lasting impact on the later South Indian sculpture, and its products were carried to Sri Lanka and South-east Asia.
    (a) 1 only
    (b) 1 and 3 only
    (c) 2 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • ICMR-NICPR validates oral therapy SHetA2 to block HPV’s cancer causing proteins

    Why in News?

    The Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research (ICMR-NICPR) has validated an oral small molecule therapy, SHetA2, that blocks Human Papillomavirus (HPV)’s cancer causing proteins, potentially treating pre-cancerous and cancerous cervical lesions. The molecule has been transferred to Emcure for larger human trials.

      Key Highlights

      1. Therapy: SHetA2, an oral small molecule drug.
      2. Mechanism: Blocks HPV oncoproteins (E6 and E7), which drive cervical cancer development.
      3. Target: Designed to treat pre-cancerous (CIN) and cancerous cervical lesions.
      4. Validating body: ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research (ICMR-NICPR).
      5. Next stage: Technology transferred to Emcure for advanced human clinical trials.
      6. Significance: Represents a potential non-surgical, oral treatment for HPV-related cervical disease.

      What is Human Papillomavirus (HPV)?

      1. HPV is a common DNA virus that infects the skin and mucous membranes.
      2. It is transmitted mainly through sexual contact.
      3. Persistent infection with high-risk HPV types, especially HPV-16 and HPV-18, is the leading cause of cervical cancer.
      4. HPV is also associated with cancers of the anus, vulva, vagina, penis and oropharynx.

      How Does SHetA2 Work?

      1. Inhibits the activity of HPV’s E6 and E7 oncoproteins.
      2. Restores the function of tumour suppressor proteins (p53 and Rb), allowing abnormal cells to undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis).
      3. May help prevent progression from pre-cancerous lesions to invasive cervical cancer.

      Significance

      1. Offers a non-invasive oral treatment option for HPV-related cervical lesions.
      2. May reduce the need for surgical procedures in early-stage disease.
      3. Supports India’s efforts to reduce the burden of cervical cancer, one of the most common cancers among women.
      4. Demonstrates the growing role of indigenous biomedical research and public-private collaboration.

      Government Initiatives

      1. National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) includes cervical cancer screening.
      2. Introduction of Cervavac, India’s indigenous HPV vaccine, to expand cervical cancer prevention.
      3. Promotion of HPV vaccination, screening and early diagnosis under national health programmes.

      [2021] Consider the following statements:
      1. Adenoviruses have single-stranded DNA genomes whereas retroviruses have double-stranded DNA genomes.
      2. Common cold is sometime caused by an adenovirus whereas AIDS is caused by a retrovirus.
      Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 2 only

      [C] Both 1 and 2

      [D] Neither 1 nor 2

    1. India Adds 709 New Species to Its Biodiversity Database

      Why in News?

      India added 709 new species to its faunal database and 353 plant taxa in 2025, reaffirming its status as one of the world’s mega-diverse countries.

      Faunal Discoveries

      • 709 additions: 483 species new to science. 226 species recorded for the first time in India.
      • Total recorded fauna: 1,05,953 species.
      • Top States: Kerala (98), West Bengal (76), Karnataka (67), and Arunachal Pradesh (65)
      • Major Groups: Hymenoptera (106), Lepidoptera (65), Diptera (64), Arachnida (64), Coleoptera (55), and Pisces (50)
      • Notable Discoveries
        • Myotis himalaicus (Himalayan bat)
        • Ptyctolaemus mamdaphaensis & P. siangensis (green fan-throated lizards)
        • Lycodon irwini (Irwin’s wolf snake)

      Floral Discoveries

      • 353 plant taxa added: 221 new to science. 132 new distributional records.
      • Top States: Arunachal Pradesh (49), Uttarakhand (39), and Kerala (37)
      • Composition: Angiosperms: 154, Pteridophytes: 3, Bryophytes: 13, Lichens: 62, Fungi: 93, Algae: 22, Microbes: 6
      • Notable Discoveries
        • Polystichum siangense (fern)
        • Miliusa beddomei (custard apple relative)
        • Hericium indicum (edible tooth fungus)

      [2022] With reference to “Gucchi” sometimes mentioned in the news, consider the following statements:
      1. It is a fungus.
      2. It grows in some Himalayan Forest areas.
      3. It is commercially cultivated in the Himalayan foothills of north-eastern India.
      Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 3 only

      [C] 1 and 2

      [D] 2 and 3

    2. Scientists Discover New Species in Angola’s Lisima Plateau

      Why in the news?

      Wildlife experts under the Wilderness Project discovered several new insect and spider species during an expedition to the Lisima Plateau in Angola.

      Newly Identified Species

      • 8 new dragonfly species.
      • 3 new grasshopper species.
      • Around:
        • 60 new butterflies and moths.

      Other Notable Discoveries

      • Armoured predatory cricket.
      • New copper caterpillar species and butterfly.
      • Fluorescent crowned crab spider.
      • Blood-orange ladybird orb-web spider.

      Fluorescent Crowned Crab Spider

      • Special Feature: Fluoresces under ultraviolet (UV) light.
      • Fluorescence may help:
        • Communication
        • Camouflage
        • Predator avoidance.

      Ladybird Orb-Web Spider

      • Feature: Mimics ladybirds using bright coloration.
      • Purpose: Warns predators about:
        • Toxicity
        • Bitter taste.
      • Example of: Mimicry in nature.

      About Lisima Plateau

      • Remote plateau region in: Angola.

      Hydrological Importance

      • Feeds four major African river systems:
        • Congo River
        • Okavango River
        • Zambezi River
        • Cuanza River.

      Global Biodiversity Context

      • Around 8.7 million species exist globally.
      • Only about: 1.5 million species are documented.
      • Extinction Concern: More than 800 animal species extinct since 1500 due to human activities.

      [2023] Consider the following statements:
      1.Some mushrooms have medicinal properties.
      2.Some mushrooms have psycho- active properties.
      3.Some mushrooms have insecticidal properties.
      4.Some mushrooms have bioluminescent properties.
      How many of the above statements are correct?

      [A] Only one

      [B] Only two

      [C] Only three

      [D] All four

    3. Next Generation Nanomedicine for Breast Cancer

      Why in the news?

      Scientists from Agharkar Research Institute developed a biodegradable nanomedicine platform capable of silencing cancer driving genes in breast cancer cells, offering a promising precision oncology therapy.

      Key Highlights

      • Research published in: Advanced Healthcare Materials.
      • Developed under: Department of Science and Technology.
      • Uses: Targeted gene silencing strategy.
      • Aim: Effective tumour inhibition with minimal toxicity.

      What is Nanomedicine?

      Nanomedicine refers to the use of nanoscale materials and technology for:

      • Diagnosis
      • Drug delivery
      • Treatment of diseases.

      What is Precision Nanomedicine?

      • Precision nanomedicine: Targets disease causing cells specifically.
      • Reduces:
        • Damage to healthy tissues.
        • Side effects associated with conventional therapies.

      Key Technology Used

      Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles

      • Biodegradable nanoparticles with:
        • High drug loading capacity.
        • Tunable surface chemistry.
      • Used to deliver: Small interfering RNA (siRNA).

      What is siRNA?

      • Small interfering RNA (siRNA): Molecules that silence specific genes by preventing protein production.
      • Used in:
        • Gene therapy
        • Cancer treatment research.

      [2015] With reference to the use of nanotechnology in health sector, which of the following statements is/are correct?
      1.Targeted drug delivery is made possible by nanotechnology
      2.Nanotechnology can largely contribute to gene therapy
      Select the correct answer using the code given below.

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 2 only

      [C] Both 1 and 2

      [D] Neither 1 nor 2

    4. Tylosaurus rex – The “T. rex of the Sea”

      Why in the news?

      Scientists have identified a new species of giant marine reptile named Tylosaurus rex, a fearsome predator that lived during the age of dinosaurs. The findings were published in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History.

      Key Highlights

      • Tylosaurus rex was:
        • A giant marine reptile.
        • One of the apex predators of the Cretaceous Period.
      • Scientists identified it as a distinct species based on:
        • Huge body size
        • Serrated teeth
        • Strong jaw and neck musculature
        • Anatomical differences from related species.

      About Tylosaurus rex

      • Lived around 80 million years ago.
      • Habitat: an inland sea that once divided North America.
      • Features:
        • Streamlined body
        • Long snout
        • Paddle like flippers
        • Powerful tail.

      What are Mosasaurs?

      Tylosaurus rex belonged to:

      • Mosasaurs: Group of extinct marine reptiles.
      • They evolved from Land dwelling lizards.
      • Became: Apex marine predators during the late Cretaceous Period.

      [2018] The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of

      A. Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.

      B. Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.

      C. Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.

      D. Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.