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Type: Prelims Only

  • Debate over who pays for UPI as the Taxation Bill enables charges on high value merchant transactions

    Why in the News

    The Taxation and Other Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2026 proposes to allow the government to impose Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) on selected Unified Payments Interface (UPI) transactions, reviving the debate over how India’s digital payments infrastructure should be financed.

    What is the Merchant Discount Rate (MDR)?

    • Transaction fee: The Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) is the fee charged to merchants by banks and payment service providers for processing digital payments.
    • Who pays? It is generally borne by the merchant, not the customer.
    • Current position: Since January 2020, UPI and RuPay debit card transactions have zero MDR, making them free for merchants and users.
    • Government support: The government has compensated service providers through incentive schemes to sustain the digital payments ecosystem.

    What does the Bill propose?

    • Enabling provision: The Taxation and Other Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2026 relaxes the existing restrictions on MDR.
    • Selective application: It empowers the government to notify specific UPI transactions on which MDR may be levied.
    • Likely scope: Discussions indicate the levy may apply to:
      • Merchants with high annual turnover, and
      • High value transactions above ₹2,000.
    • Objective: Ensure a financially sustainable digital payments ecosystem while protecting small merchants.

    Who should bear the cost of UPI?

    • Government funding: Continue compensating payment providers through budgetary support.
    • RBI surplus: The Reserve Bank of India’s surplus transfer could partly finance UPI infrastructure.
    • Banks and payment providers: Costs may be absorbed by financial institutions.
    • Merchants: Large merchants could bear MDR without affecting small businesses.
    • Policy challenge: Balance financial sustainability, merchant affordability, and continued digital payment adoption.

    Prelims Pointers

    • Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) is the fee paid by merchants for processing digital payment transactions.
    • UPI is operated by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).
    • NPCI is an umbrella organisation for retail payment systems in India, established by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Indian Banks’ Association (IBA).
    • Zero MDR on UPI and RuPay debit card transactions has been in force since 2020.
    • The RBI periodically transfers its surplus to the Central Government under the provisions of the RBI Act, 1934.

    “[2025] Consider the following countries:
    I. United Arab Emirates
    II. France
    III. Germany
    IV. Singapore
    V. Bangladesh
    How many countries amongst the above are there other than India where international merchant payments are accepted under UPI?
    (a) Only two
    (b) Only three
    (c) Only four
    (d) All the five

  • Equity concerns in the 16th Finance Commission award

    Why in the News

    The 16th Finance Commission has retained the size of the tax pool for States but reshaped the grants that equalise between them. The tension is between fiscal efficiency and the constitutional intent of equity across unequal States.

    What is the Finance Commission?

    1. Constitutional body: The Finance Commission is set up under Article 280 every five years to recommend the sharing of taxes between the Union and the States.
    2. Vertical devolution: It fixes the share of central taxes that goes to States as a whole.
    3. Horizontal devolution: It sets the formula distributing that share among individual States.

    What are the Key Recommendations of the 16th Finance Commission?

    • Vertical devolution retained at 41%: The States’ share of the divisible pool stays at 41%, the same level as the 15th Finance Commission, giving continuity and predictability.
    • Income distance weight trimmed: The income distance weight in the horizontal formula is cut from 45% to 42.5%.
    • New GDP contribution weight: A 10% GDP contribution weight is introduced in the horizontal formula.
    • Revenue Deficit Grants eliminated: The Revenue Deficit Grants that plugged the gap for States unable to meet committed expenditure are discontinued.
    • Sector and State specific grants cut: Most sector specific and State specific grants are removed.
    • Grants in aid share halved: Grants in aid fall from 19.4% to 8.3% of total transfers.

    Why do the changes raise equity concerns?

    • Rewarding the prosperous: A GDP contribution weight favours already prosperous States that contribute more to national output.
    • Removing the equaliser: Revenue Deficit Grants had cushioned States that cannot meet committed expenditure from their own revenue.
    • Constitutional intent: Grants in aid under Article 275 are meant to lift weaker States, and a shrinking grant share works against that purpose.

    Conclusion

    The award tilts the transfer system toward fiscal performance and away from equalisation. The unresolved question is whether poorer States can meet their obligations once the grant cushion is withdrawn.

    What is Fiscal Federalism?

    • About: Fiscal federalism is the division of taxation powers, expenditure responsibilities, borrowing powers, and intergovernmental transfers among the different levels of government in a federal system.
    • Rationale: It is not merely a mechanism for dividing taxes, it ensures that a citizen’s access to essential public services does not depend excessively on the fiscal capacity of the State in which they live. Indian fiscal federalism reconciles three imbalances.
    • Vertical fiscal imbalance: The Union has access to buoyant, broad based taxes, while the States carry expenditure intensive responsibilities such as health, education, agriculture, police, and local infrastructure.
    • Horizontal fiscal imbalance: States differ widely in income, resources, geography, demographics, and revenue raising ability, so a lower income State cannot fund the same services as a richer one at similar tax rates.
    • Third tier fiscal imbalance: Panchayats and Municipalities carry substantial service delivery duties but have limited own source revenue and depend on transfers from the Union and the States.

    Constitutional Framework Governing Fiscal Federalism

    • Article 246 and the Seventh Schedule: Divides legislative and taxation powers through the Union, State, and Concurrent Lists, placing public order, health, agriculture, and local government largely in the State domain.
    • Article 246A: Inserted by the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016, gives Parliament and State Legislatures concurrent power over Goods and Services Tax, with Parliament exclusive over inter State GST.
    • Article 270: Defines the taxes forming the divisible pool shared with the States on the Finance Commission’s recommendation.
    • Article 271: Allows Union surcharges, which along with cesses are excluded from the divisible pool.
    • Article 275: Empowers Parliament to give grants in aid from the Consolidated Fund of India to States in need, including for Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Areas.
    • Article 280: Requires the President to constitute a Finance Commission every five years to recommend vertical and horizontal devolution, the principles of grants in aid, and measures to augment State funds for local bodies.
    • Article 282: Permits the Union or a State to make grants for any public purpose, the constitutional basis for many discretionary and centrally sponsored transfers.
    • Articles 243-I and 243-Y: Require States to constitute State Finance Commissions every five years for Panchayats and Municipalities respectively.
    • Article 293: Lets States borrow within India, but a State indebted to the Union needs Union consent for further borrowing.
    • Article 279A: Establishes the GST Council, institutionalising cooperative Union State decision making on indirect taxes.

    [2023] Consider the following :
    1. Demographic performance
    2. Forest and ecology
    3. Governance reforms
    4. Stable government
    5. Tax and fiscal efforts
    For the horizontal tax devolution, the Fifteenth Finance Commission used how many of the above as criteria other than population area and income distance?
    (a) Only two
    (b) Only three
    (c) only four
    (d) All five

  • RBI Monetary Policy Committee holds the repo rate at 5.25%

    Why in the News

    The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has kept the policy repo rate unchanged at 5.25%, balancing inflation risks against the need to support economic growth amid global uncertainties.

    What is the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)?

    • Statutory body: Constituted under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 (amended in 2016).
    • Composition: Six members:
      • Three RBI members: Governor (Chairperson), Deputy Governor in charge of Monetary Policy, and one RBI nominee.
      • Three external members: Appointed by the Central Government.
    • Decision-making: Each member has one vote; in case of a tie, the Governor has a casting vote.
    • Mandate: Maintain Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation at 4%, with a tolerance band of 2% to 6%.

    What did the MPC decide?

    • Repo rate unchanged: Retained at 5.25%.
    • Policy stance: Continues to remain neutral.
    • Liquidity corridor:
      • Standing Deposit Facility (SDF): 5.0%
      • Marginal Standing Facility (MSF): 5.5%
      • Bank Rate: 5.5%
    • Growth outlook: Real GDP growth projected at 6.7%.
    • Inflation outlook: CPI inflation rose to 4.4% in June 2026, crossing the 4% target after remaining below it for 16 months.

    Why did the MPC maintain the status quo?

    • Global uncertainties: Rising crude oil prices and geopolitical tensions in West Asia pose inflation risks.
    • Monsoon concerns: An El Nino driven deficient monsoon could increase food inflation.
    • Data dependent approach: The MPC prefers to wait for clearer inflation and growth signals before changing policy rates.

    Back2Basics: Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

    • Established: 1935 under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
    • Functions: Monetary authority of India, Banker to the Government, Banker to banks, Regulator and supervisor of the banking system, and Manager of foreign exchange reserves.
    • Major monetary policy instruments: Repo Rate, Standing Deposit Facility (SDF), Marginal Standing Facility (MSF), Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR), Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR), Open Market Operations (OMOs)

    “[2017] Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)?
    1. It decides the RBI’s benchmark interest rates.
    2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year.
    3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    (a) 1 only
    (b) 1 and 2 only
    (c) 3 only
    (d) 2 and 3 only

  • SpaceX Falcon 9 upper stage set to strike the Moon, exposing gaps in space law

    Why in the News

    A spent SpaceX Falcon 9 upper stage is expected to impact the Einstein Crater on the Moon on 5 August 2026. The event provides a rare scientific opportunity while highlighting gaps in international laws governing lunar activities and space debris.

    What is the Outer Space Treaty?

    • The Outer Space Treaty (1967) is the foundation of international space law.
    • Governs activities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies.
    • Prohibits national sovereignty claims over outer space (Article II).
    • Requires exploration for the benefit of all countries and peaceful purposes.

    What is a Controlled Source Impact?

    • An impact where the mass, speed, and trajectory of the object are known beforehand.
    • Helps scientists accurately study:
      • Crater formation.
      • Lunar dust (ejecta) behaviour.
      • Surface composition.

    What is ATLAC?

    • Action Team on Lunar Activity Consultation (ATLAC) is a United Nations (UN) working group.
    • Works on developing norms for: Lunar landing coordination, Lunar dust mitigation, and Space debris management.

    Why is the Impact Significant?

    • Rare opportunity to study the Moon through a known artificial impact.
    • Improves understanding of lunar dust, crucial for future lunar missions and habitats.
    • Similar to NASA’s Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) Mission (2009), which confirmed the presence of water ice.

    Challenges

    • No treaty specifically regulates lunar debris or spent rocket stages.
    • No legal protection for lunar heritage sites (e.g., Shiv Shakti Point).
    • Increasing commercial and national missions raise collision risks.
    • Slow consensus-based UN rule-making.

    Chandrayaan-3

    • Launched by: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in 2023.
    • Achievement: First soft landing near the Moon’s south pole; India became the 4th country to achieve a soft landing on the Moon.
    • Shiv Shakti Point: Name of the Vikram lander’s landing site.
    • Components: Vikram Lander and Pragyan Rover.

    [2009] India has recently landed its Moon Impact Probe (MIP) on the Moon. Among the following countries, which one landed such probe on the Moon earlier?

    (a) Australia

    (b) Canada

    (c) China

    (d) Japan.

  • National Board for Wildlife clears the Panari hydropower project in the Panna Ranipur tiger corridor

    Why in the News

    The Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) recommended wildlife clearance for the 1,800 MW Panari Pumped Storage Hydropower Project in the Panna-Ranipur Tiger Corridor, despite concerns that it could fragment a critical wildlife corridor.

    How does a Pumped Storage Hydropower Project (PSH) work?

    • Uses two reservoirs at different elevations.
    • During low electricity demand, water is pumped to the upper reservoir.
    • During peak demand, water is released to generate electricity.
    • Acts as a grid-scale energy storage system for renewable energy.

    What is the Panna-Ranipur Tiger Corridor?

    • Connects Panna Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh) with Ranipur Tiger Reserve (Uttar Pradesh).
    • Facilitates movement of tigers, leopards, and sloth bears.
    • Ensures genetic exchange and healthy wildlife populations.
      • A wildlife corridor is a natural passage connecting fragmented habitats, enabling movement, migration, breeding, and genetic exchange among wildlife populations.

    Why was the Project Cleared?

    • NBWL Standing Committee approved it based on recommendations of:
      • National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
      • Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
    • Clearance is subject to mitigation measures.

    Concerns

    • Corridor fragmentation affecting wildlife movement.
    • Increased human-wildlife conflict.
    • Loss of habitat connectivity and genetic diversity.
    • Cumulative impacts of multiple infrastructure projects.

    Mitigation Measures

    • Construction of three 30-metre-wide wildlife overpasses.
    • Relocation of muck dumping and project facilities outside the corridor.
    • Realignment of project infrastructure to reduce habitat disturbance.

    Back2Basics: Panna Tiger Reserve

    1. Designation: Tiger reserve and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, in Madhya Pradesh.
    2. Location: Panna and Chhatarpur districts, on the Vindhyan ranges along the Ken River.
    3. Distinction: Site of a successful tiger reintroduction after its tiger population was lost around 2009.
    4. Linked project: Adjoins the Ken Betwa river linking project, India’s first interlinking of rivers.

    “[2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under ‘Critical Tiger Habitat’?
    (a) Corbett
    (b) Ranthambore
    (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam
    (d) Sunderbans

  • Supreme Court orders SOPs against digital arrest cyber fraud and mule accounts

    Why in the News

    The Supreme Court directed the Centre, States, and Union Territories to implement Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) within four weeks to curb digital arrest cyber fraud, including freezing mule accounts, strengthening grievance redressal, and improving cybercrime coordination.

    What is a Digital Arrest Scam?

    • A cyber fraud where scammers impersonate police or enforcement agencies through video/audio calls.
    • Victims are falsely told they are under “digital arrest” and coerced into transferring money.

    What is a Mule Account?

    • A bank account used to receive and transfer proceeds of cyber fraud.
    • Often opened by unsuspecting or paid individuals.
    • Banks can impose temporary debit holds to prevent fraudulent withdrawals.

    What is the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)?

    • A nodal agency under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) for coordinating India’s response to cybercrime.
    • Operates the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP) and the 1930 Cyber Helpline.

    Supreme Court Directions

    • Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to issue SOPs for temporary debit holds on mule accounts.
    • States/UTs to operationalise:
      • State Cyber Crime Coordination Centres.
      • e-Zero FIR mechanism.
    • Strengthen grievance redressal, money restoration, and public awareness.

    Challenges

    • Cross-border cybercrime networks.
    • Rapid movement of funds through mule accounts and cryptocurrencies.
    • Weak inter-agency coordination.
    • SIM spoofing and fake identities.
    • Low public awareness, especially among the elderly.

    Value Addition

    e-Zero FIR

    • Enables registration of a cybercrime complaint without jurisdictional barriers.
    • The complaint is later transferred to the appropriate police station.

    Citizen Response to Financial Cyber Fraud

    • Call 1930 immediately.
    • Report the incident on the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP).
    • Early reporting increases the chances of freezing fraudulent transactions.

    Back2Basics: Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)

    • Parent Ministry: Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
    • Established: 2020.
    • Key Components:
      • National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP).
      • 1930 Financial Cyber Fraud Helpline.
    • Mandate: Coordinate law enforcement, banks, telecom operators, and other stakeholders to prevent and investigate cybercrime.

    “[2017] In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents?
    1. Service providers
    2. Data Centres
    3. Body corporate
    (a) 1 only
    (b) 1 and 2 only
    (c) 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • India resets ties with Bangladesh and invites its new leader to the BRICS Summit

    Why in the News

    India distanced itself from former Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina’s public event in Delhi while inviting Bangladesh’s new leader to the 18th BRICS Summit in his capacity as BIMSTEC Chair, signalling a recalibration of ties with Dhaka.

    What is BIMSTEC?

    • Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is a regional organization established in 1997 to promote economic, technical, and security cooperation in the Bay of Bengal region.
    • Members: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand
    • Secretariat: Dhaka, Bangladesh.

    What is the BRICS Outreach Session?

    • A special session where BRICS invites leaders of regional organizations and partner countries.
    • Bangladesh was invited in its capacity as the current BIMSTEC Chair.

    Why is India Recalibrating Ties?

    • Relations changed after Bangladesh’s political transition.
    • India has resumed engagement with the new government through diplomatic outreach and restoration of visa services.
    • Distancing from Sheikh Hasina’s event signals neutrality toward Bangladesh’s internal politics.

    Challenges in India-Bangladesh Relations

    • Anti-India sentiment in sections of Bangladeshi society.
    • Sheikh Hasina’s presence in India.
    • Teesta River water-sharing dispute.
    • Border management, smuggling, and illegal migration.
    • Security of minorities.
    • Growing Chinese strategic and economic influence in Bangladesh.

    [2026] Match List I (BIMSTEC Centre) with List II (Location):
    A. BIMSTEC Cultural Industries Observatory
    B. BIMSTEC Energy Centre
    C. BIMSTEC Centre for Weather and Climate
    D. BIMSTEC Technology Transfer Facility
    1. NOIDA 2. Bengaluru 3. Colombo 4. Thimphu
    (a) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
    (b) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
    (c) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
    (d) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3

  • NATO enters a new strategic era as burden shifts to Europe and openings emerge for India

    Why in the News

    The 36th North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Summit held in Ankara (July 2026) highlighted a shift in transatlantic security, with the United States (US) urging European allies to take greater responsibility for conventional defence, allowing Washington to focus more on the Indo-Pacific.

    What is NATO?

    • North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance established in 1949 under the Washington Treaty.
    • Based on collective defence under Article 5, where an attack on one member is considered an attack on all.
    • Members: 32 countries (including Finland and Sweden).

    Key Developments

    • US expects European allies to assume primary responsibility for conventional defence.
    • Greater emphasis on burden-sharing through higher defence spending.
    • US continues as NATO’s: Nuclear guarantor. Strategic enabler. Political leader.

    Evolution of NATO

    • NATO 1.0 (1949-1991): Cold War; deterrence against the Soviet Union.
    • NATO 2.0 (1991-2022): Eastward expansion and operations in the Balkans and Afghanistan.
    • NATO 3.0 (2022 onwards): Europe strengthens conventional defence while the US focuses increasingly on the Indo-Pacific.

    Significance for India

    • Greater US strategic focus on the Indo-Pacific.
    • Enhanced opportunities for India-Europe cooperation in: Defence manufacturing. Artificial Intelligence (AI). Cybersecurity. Semiconductors. Space technology.
    • Supports India’s strategic autonomy through diversified partnerships.

    Challenges

    • Burden-sharing disagreements among NATO members.
    • Europe’s dependence on US military capabilities.
    • Industrial capacity constraints.
    • Continuing Russia-Ukraine conflict.
    • Simultaneous security commitments in Europe and the Indo-Pacific.

    Value Addition

    Article 5: The cornerstone of NATO, providing collective defence. It has been invoked only once, after the 11 September 2001 (9/11) terrorist attacks on the United States.

    Article 10: Allows European states to join NATO by unanimous agreement of existing members.

    • NATO and India
      • India is not a NATO member.
      • India engages with several NATO members through bilateral defence cooperation while maintaining strategic autonomy.

    “[2024] Consider the following pairs:
    Country : Reason for being in the news
    1. Argentina : Worst economic crisis
    2. Sudan : War between the country’s regular army and paramilitary forces
    3. Turkey : Rescinded its membership of NATO
    How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
    (a) Only one pair
    (b) Only two pairs
    (c) All three pairs
    (d) None of the pairs

  • Census 2027 finalises Phase 2 questions with caste enumeration

    Why in the News

    Around 28 questions have been finalised for the Population Enumeration phase of Census 2027, which will record caste for all residents for the first time in decades. The enumeration begins on 17 August in Ladakh and snow bound areas ahead of the rest of the country.

    What is the Census in India?

    1. Constitutional and legal basis: The Census is conducted under the Census Act, 1948 by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, and Census is a Union subject in the Seventh Schedule.
    2. Decadal count: It is a decennial enumeration of the entire population covering demographic, social and economic characteristics.

    What are the two phases of Census 2027?

    1. Houselisting phase: The first phase records houses, household amenities and assets.
    2. Population Enumeration: The second phase counts every individual and records personal and household particulars, and is where caste will be captured.

    What is new in Census 2027?

    1. Caste for all: For the first time in decades, the caste of every resident is to be recorded, not only Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
    2. Questionnaire: The final questionnaire is likely to carry 28 questions for the Population Enumeration phase.
    3. Phased timing: Snow bound areas of Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are counted from 17 August, and the rest of the country in February 2027.

    Why does caste enumeration matter?

    1. Evidence for policy: Caste data informs reservation, welfare targeting and assessment of backwardness beyond SC and ST groups.
    2. Filling a data gap: The last full caste count outside SC and ST dates to 1931, leaving current policy reliant on dated estimates.

    Challenges to caste enumeration in the Census

    1. Classification complexity: Caste names run into thousands with regional and spelling variations, complicating standardised recording.
    2. Self identification: Responses depend on self reporting, which can be inconsistent or strategically stated.
    3. Enumerator training: Accurate capture of caste needs trained enumerators and a controlled code list.
    4. Political sensitivity: Publication of caste numbers can intensify demands for revised reservation shares.
    5. Data privacy: Handling granular caste data raises confidentiality and misuse concerns.

    Census Act, 1948

    1. Central legislation empowering the government to conduct the decennial Census.
    2. Administered by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
    3. Makes public cooperation compulsory and guarantees confidentiality of individual records.
    4. Census information is not admissible as evidence in court, protecting respondent data.

    [2009] Consider the following statements:
    1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
    2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) Both 1 and 2
    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Supreme Court extends Section 498A cruelty protection to live in relationships

    Why in the News

    The Supreme Court held that protection against cruelty under Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860 extends to women in live-in relationships, provided the partners share a genuine intent to marry. The ruling is based on Article 14 (Right to Equality).

    What is Section 498A?

    • Penalized cruelty by a husband or his relatives against a woman.
    • Now corresponds to Section 85 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023.
    • Traditionally applied only to legally valid marriages.

    Supreme Court Ruling

    • Adopted a purposive interpretation to address changing social realities.
    • Extended protection to women in live-in relationships where there is: A relationship in the nature of marriage, and A genuine intent to marry.
    • Held that denying such protection violates Article 14.

    Why is the Domestic Violence Act Not Enough?

    • The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence (PWDV) Act, 2005 covers women in relationships in the nature of marriage.
    • However, it provides civil remedies such as: Protection orders, Residence orders, and Maintenance
    • Section 85, BNS provides criminal punishment, offering stronger deterrence.

    Challenges

    • Difficulty in proving intent to marry.
    • Limited documentary evidence in live-in relationships.
    • Possibility of misuse.
    • Overlap between civil remedies under the PWDV Act and criminal proceedings.

    Important Constitutional Provisions

    • Article 14: Equality before law.
    • Article 21: Right to life and personal liberty, including dignity and autonomy.

    Landmark Judgments

    • D. Velusamy v. D. Patchaiammal (2010): Defined “relationship in the nature of marriage.”
    • Indra Sarma v. V.K.V. Sarma (2013): Laid down factors for determining live-in relationships under the PWDV Act.

    [2019] Which Article of the Constitution of India safeguards one’s right to marry the person of one’s choice?

    (a) Article 19

    (b) Article 21

    (c) Article 25

    (d) Article 29