💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Distribution: yearly

  • NASA-ISRO NISAR Mission Prepares for Launch

    nisar

    Central Idea

    • The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission, a collaborative effort between NASA and ISRO, is on track for its scheduled launch in the first quarter of 2024.

    About the NISAR Mission

    • Collaboration: NISAR is a Low Earth Orbit observatory developed jointly by NASA and ISRO, highlighting international collaboration in space exploration.
    • Launch Vehicle: The mission is set to launch from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota onboard ISRO’s GSLV Mark-II launch vehicle.
    • Data Utility: NISAR data will offer unprecedented detail and assist researchers in various ways, including monitoring volcanic activity, tracking groundwater use effects, measuring ice sheet melt rates, and observing changes in global vegetation distribution.
    • Mission Duration: The $1.5-billion NISAR mission has a planned mission life of three years and will survey Earth’s land and ice-covered surfaces every 12 days following a 90-day commissioning period.

    Advanced SAR Technology

    • Dual-Band SAR: NISAR carries L and S dual-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) using the Sweep SAR technique, providing both wide coverage and high-resolution data.
    • Observatory Structure: The SAR payloads are mounted on the Integrated Radar Instrument Structure (IRIS) along with the spacecraft bus, forming an observatory.
    • Contributions: NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) provides the L-band SAR and several key components, while ISRO’s U R Rao Satellite Centre contributes the spacecraft bus, S-band SAR electronics, launch vehicle, and mission operations.

    Key milestones achieved

    • Thermal Vacuum Testing: The thermal vacuum testing, a critical system-level test, was successfully completed in Bengaluru. This test ensures that the spacecraft can operate effectively under extreme temperature conditions.
    • EMI and EMC Testing: Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing have also been successfully accomplished.
    • Upcoming Vibration Tests: The next phase involves conducting vibration tests to simulate the harsh launch environment. This test will subject the satellite to intense vibrations while mimicking the conditions of a rocket launch.

  • Debate over Appropriate Age of Admission to Class 1

    age

    Central Idea

    • The age at which children should begin formal education has been a topic of debate and discussion, with variations in policies and practices among different states and countries.
    • Understanding the rationale behind these age criteria is crucial for shaping educational policies that align with the needs and development of young learners.

    NEP 2020 and Minimum Age for Class 1

    • National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: NEP 2020 introduces a “5+3+3+4” structure for formal schooling, emphasizing early childhood education for ages 3 to 5 years.
    • Minimum Age for Class 1: According to NEP 2020, a child should be 6 years old to enroll in Class 1, following three years of early childhood education.

    Recent News and Policy Implementation

    • Union Education Ministry’s Efforts: The Union Education Ministry has urged states to align their Class 1 admission age with NEP 2020’s recommendation.
    • Kendriya Vidyalayas Case: Last year, Kendriya Vidyalayas increased the admission age to align with NEP 2020, leading to a legal challenge that was ultimately dismissed.
    • Delhi Government’s Decision: This year, the Delhi government decided to maintain its existing guidelines, permitting Class 1 admission below the age of 6.

    Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009

    • RTE Act’s Age Provision: RTE Act guarantees education from ages 6 to 14, implying that elementary education (Class 1) should begin at age 6.
    • Historical Perspective: The age of 6 was chosen based on global practices and historical references, including Mahatma Gandhi’s basic education principles.

    Research on Entry Age for Formal Education

    • David Whitebread’s Research: Studies comparing early literacy lessons starting at ages 5 and 7 in New Zealand showed no significant advantage for early introduction to formal learning.
    • Reading Achievement Study: A study across 55 countries found no significant association between reading achievement and school entry age.

    Global Practices in Starting Formal Education

    • Standard Age of 6: Many East Asian and European countries start formal education at age 6, with younger children often attending preschool.
    • Scandinavian Approach: Scandinavian countries typically begin formal education at age 7, supported by universal child care for younger children.
    • US and UK Variation: The USA and UK stand out as countries where children generally start school at age 5, with varying childcare provisions.

    Conclusion

    • The debate over the appropriate age for starting formal education encompasses a range of factors, including developmental readiness, educational goals, and cultural norms.
    • Understanding the diverse approaches and research findings can inform policymakers as they strive to create educational systems that best serve the needs of young learners.

  • PM-PVTGS Development Mission launched

    pvtgs

    Central Idea

    • Prime Minister launched Pradhan Mantri PVTG Development Mission worth Rs 24,000 crore for the development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) during.

    PM PVTGS Development Mission

    • Objective: This Rs 24,000-crore initiative is dedicated to the holistic development of PVTGs.
    • Focus Areas: It aims to provide essential amenities like road and telecom connectivity, electricity, housing, clean water, sanitation, improved education, healthcare, nutrition, and sustainable livelihoods.
    • Multi-Ministerial Approach: Multiple ministries will collaborate to implement development projects, including Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awas Yojana, and Jal Jeevan Mission.

    Who are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)?

    • Unique Characteristics: PVTGs are a subset of tribal groups in India characterized by primitive traits, geographical isolation, low literacy, zero to negative population growth rate, and economic backwardness.
    • Dependency on Hunting: These tribes often rely on hunting for sustenance and employ pre-agricultural technology.
    • Historical Background: The distinction for Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) was introduced in 1973 by the Dhebar Commission.
    • Expansion: In 1975, the Centre identified 52 tribal groups as PTGs, and this list expanded by 23 groups in 1993.
    • Renaming as PVTGs: In 2006, these groups were renamed as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).

    Current status of PVTGs

    • Population and Distribution: India is home to 2.8 million PVTG members, belonging to 75 tribes, residing in 22,544 villages across 220 districts in 18 states and Union Territories.
    • Statewise Population: States with significant PVTG populations include Odisha (866,000), Madhya Pradesh (609,000), and Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana) (539,000).
    • Largest PVTG: The largest PVTG is the Saura community in Odisha, numbering 535,000.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:

    1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.
    2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
    3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.
    4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.

    Which of the statements given above are correct? (CSP 2019)

    (a) 1, 2 and 3

    (b) 2, 3 and 4

    (c) 1, 2 and 4

    (d) 1, 3 and 4

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”m9e0nli45f” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

  • FATF Mutual Evaluation of India

    Central Idea

    • A team from the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is currently conducting a mutual evaluation in India.
    • India’s mutual evaluation report is expected to be discussed during the FATF plenary meeting in June 2024.

    About Financial Action Task Force (FATF)

    • Foundation: FATF was founded in 1989 through the initiative of the G7 nations.
    • Secretariat: The FATF Secretariat is headquartered at the OECD headquarters in Paris, France.
    • Plenary Meetings: FATF conducts three Plenary meetings during each of its 12-month rotating presidencies.
    • Membership: As of 2019, FATF consists of 37 member jurisdictions.

    India’s Engagement with FATF

    • Observer Status: India became an Observer at FATF in 2006, marking the beginning of its association with the organization.
    • Full Membership: On June 25, 2010, India officially became the 34th country to attain full membership in FATF, signifying its active participation and commitment to the organization’s objectives.

    Understanding the Mutual Evaluation Process

    • Review Framework: The mutual evaluation process is an essential mechanism through which FATF assesses a country’s legal and institutional framework to combat money laundering and terrorist financing. It also evaluates the country’s implementation of measures to prevent these financial crimes.
    • Compliance Assessment: During this process, FATF scrutinizes a country’s adherence to its 40 recommendations regarding anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing. It also evaluates the practical effectiveness of these measures.
    • Outcome and Rating: The outcome of the mutual evaluation is documented in a report. This report highlights the country’s strengths, identifies weaknesses, and suggests areas for improvement. A rating is assigned based on the level of compliance and effectiveness.

    FATF’s Evaluation of India

    • Comprehensive Assessment: FATF’s evaluation of India encompasses various aspects, including the nation’s legal framework, regulatory system, law enforcement efforts, and international collaboration.
    • Alignment with Global Standards: Central agencies in India have been actively working to ensure that the country’s anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing laws align with international standards and that their practical implementation is effective.

    Significance of FATF Evaluation

    • Report Impact: The evaluation results in a comprehensive report detailing India’s strengths, weaknesses, and areas requiring improvement. This report includes a rating based on compliance and effectiveness.
    • Global Anti-Financial Crime Efforts: The mutual evaluation process is a crucial tool in the worldwide fight against money laundering and terrorist financing.
    • Financial Implications: The outcome can significantly affect a country’s access to international financial markets and its standing in the global community.

  • Reviving Adultery as a Criminal Offense

    Adultery

    Central Idea

    • The Parliamentary Committee on Home Affairs has proposed the reintroduction of adultery as a criminal offense in the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023, a law designed to replace the Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860.
    • The committee’s recommendations have sparked a debate on the legal position of adultery and its implications on constitutional rights and gender equality.

    Adultery De-Criminalization in India

    • Adultery in IPC (1860): Until 2018, Section 497 of the IPC defined adultery as a criminal offense, penalizing only men for engaging in adulterous relationships.
    • Supreme Court’s Verdict (Joseph Shine vs. Union of India, 2018): The Supreme Court unanimously struck down Section 497, citing discrimination and violations of fundamental rights.

    Parliamentary Committee’s Recommendations

    • Gender-Neutral Adultery: The Committee suggests reinstating adultery as a criminal offense but making it gender-neutral, applicable to both men and women.
    • Safeguarding Marriage Sanctity: The Committee argues that safeguarding the sanctity of marriage is crucial and justifies criminalizing adultery.

    Legal and Constitutional Implications

    • Discrimination and Violation of Fundamental Rights: The Supreme Court’s verdict in Joseph Shine case highlighted the discriminatory nature of Section 497 and its violation of Articles 14, 15, and 21 of the Constitution.
    • Autonomy of Women: The judgment emphasized women’s autonomy and dignity, asserting that husbands do not possess legal sovereignty over their wives.
    • Privacy and Matrimonial Sphere: Adultery as a criminal offense intrudes into the privacy of the matrimonial sphere, which is better left as a ground for divorce.
    • Relic of Victorian Morality: The Court deemed Section 497 as a relic of Victorian morality that treats women as chattels and property of their husbands.

    Can the Supreme Court’s Decision Be Overturned?

    • Parliament’s Authority: While Parliament cannot directly overturn a Supreme Court ruling, it can pass legislation that addresses the basis of the court’s judgment.
    • Validating Legislation: Parliament can enact validating legislation that changes the circumstances under which the court’s judgment was rendered, effectively altering the legal landscape.

    Conclusion

    • The debate surrounding the reintroduction of adultery as a criminal offence is fraught with legal, constitutional, and societal implications.
    • It calls for a nuanced examination of individual rights, gender equality, and the sanctity of marriage within the framework of Indian law and society.

  • Centre-State Disputes: Implications on India’s Economy

    Central Idea

    • In India, disputes between the Central and State governments regarding economic policies have a long history, but in recent years, they have escalated in both frequency and intensity, taking on the character of ‘persistent frictions’ within the federal system.
    • These disputes have significant implications for India’s economy and its federal structure.

    Current Context

    • Impact of Economic Reforms: Economic reforms since 1991 have relaxed many controls on investments, granting some autonomy to States. However, States still rely on the Centre for revenue receipts.
    • Shift from ‘Give and Take’ to Hardened Stance: Recent State resistance has transformed the cooperative Centre-State relationship into a more rigid and confrontational dynamic.

    Emerging Conflict Areas

    • Homogenization of Social Sector Policies: Conflicts arise over the homogenization of social sector policies, where States seek greater discretion, but central agencies push for uniformity.
    • Functioning of Regulatory Institutions: Differences emerge regarding the functioning of regulatory institutions, leading to conflicts over jurisdiction.
    • Powers of Central Agencies: Central agencies attempt to increase their influence, often imposing their preferences on States.

    Economic Consequences of Interference

    • Crowding Out State Investments: Centralization of planning and implementation limits States’ flexibility in infrastructure development. This has resulted in reduced State investments, particularly in projects like roads and bridges.
    • Fiscal Competition: Frictions with the Centre have spurred fiscal competition between States and the Centre. States compete with each other and with the Centre, leading to complexities in welfare provisioning.
    • Inefficiencies Due to Parallel Policies: Frictions have resulted in parallel policies, where either the Centre or States duplicate each other’s efforts. For example, some States have rolled back from the National Pension System (NPS) due to fiscal concerns.

    Inevitable Interdependence

    • Article 258A: The Centre relies on States for the implementation of many laws and policies, particularly in concurrent spheres.
    • Preserving Interdependence: In a large, diverse, developing society like India, interdependence between the Centre and States is inevitable and needs to be maintained.

    Conclusion

    • The growing Centre-State disputes in India’s federal system have far-reaching economic implications.
    • Balancing autonomy and cooperation between the Centre and States is essential for the nation’s economic growth and effective governance.

    Back2Basics:

    Centre-State Financial Relations

     

    Article 268 to 281 Distribution of taxes between the Central Government and States, specifying various taxes and their sharing.
    Article 282 Allows the Central Government to provide grants-in-aid to States for specific purposes, including welfare programs.
    Article 293 Regulates borrowing powers of States, requiring Presidential consent for external borrowing to ensure fiscal discipline.
    Article 280 Establishes the Finance Commission, which recommends tax revenue and grants distribution between the Centre and States.
    Goods and Services Tax (GST) Governed by the Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016, and associated laws, transforming taxation in India.
    Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act Guides fiscal discipline and management by setting fiscal targets for both Central and State Governments.
    Inter-State Council Established under Article 263

    Acts as a forum for dialogue between the Central Government and States on various issues.

     

  • India to host second Voice of Global South Summit

    global south

    Central Idea

    • Prime Minister will inaugurate the second Voice of Global South Summit. This will be the second Voice of Global South Summit in less than a year hosted by India.

    What is the Voice of Global South Summit?

    • The VoGS Summit is a Indian initiative that has been designed to provide a common platform for the countries of the Global South to share their perspectives and priorities on several major issues.
    • It aims to find out solutions for common challenges faced by developing countries through talks.
    • Inspired by PM’s vision, ‘Sabka Saath Sabka Vikas Sabka Vishwas aur Sabka Prayas’, the summit follows India’s philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.

    How did the summit start?

    • The foundation of this unique initiative was laid considering the recent global developments that have severely impacted the developing world.
    • These include events such as Covid pandemic, mounting debt, ongoing Ukraine conflict, and challenges of food, energy security and others.
    • Often, the worries of developing countries do not gain adequate attention and space on the global stage.
    • The relevant existing platforms have proven to be deficient in handling the challenges and concerns of the developing nations.

    About Global South

    • Global South refers to countries in Asia, Africa, and South America, while Global North includes countries like the US, Canada, Europe, Russia, Australia, and New Zealand.
    • It’s a term used to categorize countries based on economic development and historical factors.

    Features of Global South

    • Mostly lower-income countries, often with colonial histories.
    • Not strictly limited to the Southern Hemisphere; many are in the Northern Hemisphere.
    • Used as a value-free alternative to “Third World.”
    • Major countries like Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and Mexico are part of the Global South.

    Need for Classification

    • Helps describe economic and geopolitical differences.
    • Overcomes the limitations of East/West or First/Second/Third World classifications.
    • Recognizes the shared history of colonization.
    • Acknowledges the emergence of economically powerful South countries.

    Indian Context

    • India aims to represent the underrepresented Global South in international forums.
    • Calls for reform in multilateral institutions like the UNSC, UN, and IMF.
    • Emergent economies like India and China seek cooperation with other Global South countries.
    • Challenges the dominance of the Global North in international affairs.

    Criticism of Classification

    • Some find the term too broad and vague.
    • Questions about whether elites of the Global South aim to challenge global capitalist structures.
    • Concerns about the neglect of Africa in the rise of Asia.

    Significance of Global South

    • India aims to unite Global South nations to address common concerns.
    • Potential for technical and idea exchanges and cooperation in various areas.
    • Highlighting shared concerns like energy security and sustainable development.

    Challenges for Consolidation

    • Debate over climate reparations and exclusion of India and China.
    • Impact of the Russia-Ukraine War on Least Developed Countries.
    • China’s increasing influence in the Global South through initiatives like the Belt and Road.

    Way Forward

    • India needs active engagement in regional politics within the Global South.
    • Recognize differentiation within the Global South in terms of wealth, needs, and capabilities.

  • Kazi Nazrul Islam and his Iconic Song

    Kazi Nazrul Islam

    Central Idea

    • A movie-maker has issued an apology for the unintended distress caused by its rendition of the iconic song “Karar Oi Louho Kopat” penned by Bengali poet Kazi Nazrul Islam in 1922.

    Who was Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899-1976)?

    • Kazi Nazrul Islam was born on May 24, 1899, in Churulia, a village in the Burdwan district of West Bengal, India.
    • He was a famous poet, writer, and musician from Bengal.
    • He is well-known for his songs, which are called “Nazrulgeeti.”
    • These songs are very popular and loved by in West Bengal, Bangladesh, almost as much as Rabindrasangeet of Rabindranath Tagore.
    • Nazrul is often called the “Vidrohi Kavi (Rebel Poet)” because he wrote more than 4,000 songs, and many of them were about protesting and fighting against unfair rules and powerful rulers.
    • These songs inspired the freedom fighters of Bengal who were fighting against the British colonial rule.
    • He is celebrated as the national poet of Bangladesh and is also revered in West Bengal, India.

    Understanding “Karar Oi Louho Kopat”

    • Nazrul was an ardent supporter of India’s struggle for independence from British colonial rule. He used his poetry and writings to inspire and mobilize people against British oppression.
    • Published in 1922 in “Banglar Katha” and later included in Nazrul’s “Bhangar Gaan,” the song was penned as a call to break down the iron gates of prison, symbolizing resistance against British oppression.
    • He wrote the song of revolution after the British threw Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das (1870-1925) in prison in 1922.

  • How does an Electric Battery work?

    battery

    Central Idea

    • Electric batteries have become an integral part of modern life, enabling the widespread use of motorization and wireless technology.
    • These devices store and release electrical energy, acquired by converting other forms of energy, primarily through chemical reactions.

    Historical Roots of Electric Batteries

    • Galvani’s Experiment: In 1780, Luigi Galvani conducted an experiment involving two metal plates and a frog’s leg, marking an early exploration of electricity’s effects on biological systems.
    • Volta’s Voltaic Pile: Alessandro Volta’s voltaic pile in 1800 consisted of alternating copper and zinc plates separated by electrolyte-soaked paper. It produced a steady current but lacked a comprehensive explanation.
    • John Daniel’s Innovation: British chemist John Daniel improved on Volta’s design with a more efficient cell that generated electric current for extended periods.
    • Faraday’s Insights: In the early 19th century, Michael Faraday elucidated the principles of electrochemical cells, including naming components like anode, cathode, and electrolyte.

    Understanding Electric Batteries

    • Voltaic Cells: Electric batteries, also known as voltaic or galvanic cells, utilize redox reactions to produce an electric current. They consist of two half-cells, each with a metal electrode immersed in an electrolyte of the same metal.
    • Electron Transfer: In one half-cell, metal ions dissolve into the electrolyte, releasing electrons. In the other half-cell, the reverse occurs, as metal ions deposit onto the electrode and require electrons.
    • External Circuit: A wire connects the two electrodes, allowing electron flow from the anode to the cathode. A salt bridge connects the two electrolytes, enabling ion exchange.
    • Components: Key components include the cathode (positive electrode), anode (negative electrode), and the electrolyte. The source voltage and terminal voltage are important concepts.
    • Source Voltage: It represents the energy imparted to electrons and is equal to the terminal voltage in ideal conditions.
    • Issues: Corrosion is a common issue in electrochemical cells, caused by factors like moisture and galvanic corrosion.

    Types of Batteries

    • Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries: Li-ion batteries are rechargeable and have revolutionized technology. They consist of a cathode, anode, and an electrolyte. During discharge, lithium ions move between electrodes, facilitating energy storage.
    • Electric Vehicle (EV) Batteries: EV batteries, such as those used in Tesla’s Model S, are composed of numerous Li-ion cells and are critical for powering electric vehicles.
    • Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Hydrogen fuel cells are gaining interest, especially in the context of green energy. They use hydrogen as a fuel source and produce electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen, emitting water as a byproduct.

    Future Prospects and Significance

    • Ongoing Research: Li-ion batteries and hydrogen fuel cells continue to be areas of extensive research, with diverse configurations and advantages.
    • Hydrogen Economy: Hydrogen fuel cells are expected to play a pivotal role in the emerging hydrogen economy, and countries like India are investing in green hydrogen production.

    Conclusion

    • Electric batteries, rooted in the principles of electrochemistry, have undergone significant evolution, transforming the way we live and utilize energy.
    • Their development and improvement remain central to advancing convenience and sustainability in industrialized societies, shaping the future of technology and transportation.

  • Prospect of a World without Work: AI and Economic Paradigms

    work ai labour

    Central Idea

    • Elon Musk’s recent remarks at the Bletchley Park summit on Artificial Intelligence (AI) have stirred discussions about the potential of AI to replace all forms of human labor.
    • While such a future may seem theoretical, it raises critical questions about the nature of work, economic paradigms, and societal well-being.

    AI’s impact and Labour and Work

    • Elon Musk’s Vision: Musk envisions a future where AI replaces all forms of human labor, leaving individuals to seek work solely for personal fulfillment.
    • Reality of AI: AI, while capable of substituting certain jobs, also generates new employment opportunities, such as AI programmers and researchers.
    • AI’s Self-Awareness: A truly workless future implies AI becoming self-aware, capable of designing, operating, and maintaining itself, a scenario that remains theoretically possible but practically improbable.

    Historical Perspectives on Work

    • John Maynard Keynes: Keynes believed that reducing working hours would enhance welfare, as work often represented drudgery. He foresaw technological advancements reducing work hours and increasing well-being.
    • Karl Marx: Marx viewed work as integral to human identity, providing meaning through material interaction with nature. Capitalism’s exploitation of labor alienates individuals from their work.
    • AI’s Impact on Work: Musk’s vision aligns with Keynes’ thinking, suggesting that AI’s advancements could eliminate work, a positive outcome in this context.

    Role of Capitalism in a Workless World

    • Capitalism and Income: Under capitalism, individuals rely on income from work to access essential resources. Lack of work equals deprivation.
    • Access to Resources: Musk’s vision allows for voluntary work but doesn’t address how individuals without work can access basic needs within the capitalist framework.

    Imagining a Workless Economy

    • Alternative Economic System: A workless world necessitates an economic system with different rules governing production and distribution, possibly involving a universal basic income.
    • Institutional Questions: This alternative world raises questions about determining income levels, resource distribution, and balancing future growth with current consumption.
    • Challenges of Change: Implementing such a system may be met with resistance within the existing capitalist society marked by rising inequality and a billionaire class.

    Conclusion

    • While the prospect of a world without work as envisioned by Elon Musk may seem speculative, it underscores the need to understand the potential disruptions caused by technological innovations.
    • The impact of AI on work cannot be fully comprehended without considering the economic institutions that shape our society.
    • Addressing these challenges requires a thoughtful examination of our current economic system and its adaptability to a rapidly changing technological landscape.

    Try this PYQ:

    Karl Marx explained the process of class struggle with the help of which one of the following theories?

    (a) Empirical liberalism

    (b) Existentialism

    (c) Darwin’s theory of evolution

    (d) Dialectical materialism

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”izm6yto1nz” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]