💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Exam Year: 2023

  • ,

    India’s coastline, extending approximately 7,517 km (with high-resolution mapping in 2026 citing nearly 11,100 km including islands), is the backbone of the nation’s Blue Economy.

    Natural Resource Potential of Indian Coastline

    Deep-Sea Mineral Wealth-The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) contains vast deposits of polymetallic nodules and crusts rich in cobalt, nickel, and manganese.

    Hydrocarbons-Offshore basins are a source of oil and gas. Eg- The Mumbai High and Krishna-Godavari (KG) Basin.

    Beach Sand Minerals-Eg- The Monazite and Ilmenite sands of Kerala and Odisha are critical for India’s nuclear energy and aerospace programs.

    Offshore Renewable Energy-The wind speeds along the western and southern coasts offer a potential of over 70 GW for offshore wind energy. Eg- Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

    Tidal and Wave Energy-Eg- The Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch.

    Salt Production-India is the 3rd largest salt producer globally, with coastal topography favoring extensive salt pans.

    Marine Biotechnology (Blue Carbon)-Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrass act as carbon sinks and sources of bioactive compounds.

    Coastal Tourism – Eg- Goa beaches and Kerala backwaters.

    Mangroves and Coastal Ecosystems – Support fisheries, carbon sequestration and shoreline protection. Eg- Sundarbans mangrove forests.

    Status of Natural Hazard Preparedness

    Advanced Early Warning Systems (EWS)-Eg- The IMD’s latest models in 2026 provide hyper-local cyclone alerts with a lead time of 5-7 days.

    The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) at INCOIS provides real-time alerts to the entire Indian Ocean region. Over 100 coastal villages in Odisha have now achieved UNESCO’s “Tsunami Ready” certification.

    Bio-Shield Protection-Eg- The MISHTI Scheme (2023-27) has successfully restored nearly 3,000 hectares of mangroves along the East Coast.

    Hazard Line Demarcation-The Survey of India (SOI) has integrated this line into the updated Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMP) for all maritime states.

    Last-Mile Connectivity-Eg- The NavIC-based GAGAN system provides emergency alerts to deep-sea fishermen even beyond cellular range.

    Integrated coastal zone management and Coastal regulation zones to regulate development activities.

    Cyclone-resistant infrastructure – Eg- Multipurpose cyclone shelters in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

    Challenges

    Nearly 33% of India’s coastline is experiencing active erosion

    Sea-Level Rise (SLR) threatens to submerge low-lying deltas and “sinking” cities. Eg- Mumbai.

    Pollution and Eutrophication-Runoff from coastal cities and farms creates “dead zones” in the ocean.

    Lack of last mile connectivity

    Increasing frequency and intensity of Cyclones.

    Way Forward

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZMP)-Focus on holistic “Ridge-to-Reef” planning rather than localized seawalls.

    Innovative Financing-Eg- Parametric Insurance for faster post-disaster recovery.

    Green Port Transition-Incentivize the “Harit Sagar” guidelines to reduce the carbon footprint of maritime trade.

    Blue Carbon Economy-Eg- Integrating MISHTI scheme outcomes with the National Carbon Market (NCM).

    Mandatory enforcement of the National Building Code (2016) for all new coastal constructions.

    Technology-Led Monitoring-Use AI, IoT sensors, and drones for 24/7 surveillance of the “Hazard Line.”

    These measures are essential to ensure that India’s vast coastline becomes a source of long-term prosperity rather than vulnerability.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    The Vedic period (1500-600 BC) laid the foundational framework of Indian civilisation, shaping its social structure, religious practices, and cultural values.

    Main Features of Vedic Society and Religion

    Social Organisation

    Varna system formed the basic social framework. Eg- Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra mentioned in later Vedic texts.

    Society was initially flexible and occupation-based, becoming rigid over time.

    Family and Kinship

    Patriarchal family structure dominated social life. Eg- Father as head of household.

    Importance of joint family system and lineage.

    Position of Women

    Women enjoyed relatively higher status in early Vedic period. Eg- Gargi and Maitreyi participating in philosophical debates.

    Gradual decline in status during later Vedic phase.

    Economic Life

    Pastoralism gradually shifted to agriculture. Eg- Use of iron ploughs in later Vedic period.

    Wealth measured in cattle, land, and grains.

    Political Organisation – Assemblies like Sabha and Samiti played a significant role.

    Religious Beliefs

    Nature worship dominated early Vedic religion. Eg- Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma.

    Rituals and Sacrifices

    Yajnas and sacrifices were central religious practices. Eg- Ashvamedha and Rajasuya in later Vedic period.

    Role of priests (Brahmanas) became increasingly prominent.

    Philosophical Thought – Emergence of Upanishadic ideas in later Vedic period. Eg- Concepts of Brahman, Atman, karma, and moksha.

    Continuity of Vedic Features in Present Indian Society

    Persistence of Varna-Based Identities

    Caste identities continue socially. Eg- Endogamy

    Religious Rituals and Festivals

    Yajnas, havans, and fire rituals remain integral to Hindu practices. Eg- Fire rituals during marriages and festivals.

    Family Structure

    Joint family ideals still influence social life, especially in rural India.

    Reverence for Vedic Deities and Concepts

    Continued worship of Agni, Indra, and Surya in rituals.

    Enduring belief in karma and dharma.

    Philosophical Continuity

    Upanishadic ideas influence modern spiritual thought. Eg- Popularity of yoga, meditation, and Vedanta.

    Gram sabha at present play similar role to Sabha and Samities

    While constitutional values of equality and secularism challenge hierarchical aspects of Vedic society, its ethical principles, ritual practices, and philosophical ideas have continued.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    A fjord is a long, narrow, and deep sea inlet with steep cliffed sides, formed due to glacial erosion and subsequent marine submergence.

    Formation of fjords

    Glacial Erosion of Pre-existing River Valleys

    During the Ice Age, valley glaciers occupied pre-existing river valleys.

    Through processes like plucking and abrasion, glaciers deepened and widened these valleys.

    This produced a characteristic U-shaped glacial trough with very steep sides.

    Overdeepening of the Valley Floor

    Glaciers erode the central part more intensely due to greater ice thickness.

    This creates basins that are often deeper than the adjoining sea.

    Reduced erosion near the glacier’s snout leaves a shallow entrance (threshold or sill).

    After the melting of glaciers, sea level rose and drowned the glacial trough. Seawater filled the valley forming a fjord.

    Fjords are among the most picturesque landscapes due to

    Steep and Towering Cliffs rising dramatically from the water attract adventure tourists. Eg- Sognefjord (Norway).

    Deep, narrow inlets create a mirror-like water surface. This enhances visual beauty through reflection of peaks and clouds

    Tributary glaciers form hanging valleys. After glaciation, these become spectacular waterfalls. Eg- Milford Sound (New Zealand).

    Vibrant Contrasts- The deep blue cold, oxygen-rich water provides a sharp color contrast against the dark granite rocks and white snow on the summits.

    Indented Coastline creates numerous bays, islands, and peninsulas, giving a highly irregular and scenic coast.

    Fjords have their own sheltered micro-climates, allowing for blossoms or orchards at the base of snowy mountains

    Unique Light and Climatic Effects – High latitude locations produce long daylight hours, auroras, and misty environments.

    Fjords represent classic glacio-fluvial and marine interaction. They also serve as important centres for tourism, fisheries, and human settlement.

    Economic geography

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    While India has emerged as “fastest growing economy” and 4th largest economy, its ranking in HDI, 2025 was 130th out of 193 countries.

    Reasons behind low human development in india

    Jobless growth due to shift from agriculture to service led growth instead of manufacturing led growth. Eg- service sector contributes 55% of GDP but employs only 30% of workforce

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Over 90% of the Indian workforce is in the informal sector – lacking social security and stable wages, leading to “working poverty.”

    Social Stratification- Caste-based discrimination prevents upward mobility for the marginalized. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.

    Poor Social Infrastructure

    Education – low public investment (2.9% of GDP) lead to “quality crisis” and high dropout rates at secondary and higher levels

    Skill Gap – only about 51.25% of youth are employable.

    Gender Disparities

    Low FLFPR – 41% in India vs 71% in China

    Women own only 13% of land while forming 63% of agriculture workforce

    Glass ceiling effect – discrimination and low representation at higher positions

    India ranked 131st out of 148 countries in WEF’s Gender Gap Report

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    “Climate Inequality” – women and poor are most vulnerable to climatic shocks like heatwaves or disasters. Eg- “climate induced migration” after floods in Assam

    Measures taken for human development in India

    Healthcare and Nutrition

    Ayushman Bharat (PM-JAY)- over 40 crore Ayushman Cards have been issued.

    Over 1.82 lakh primary health centers have been upgraded to “Arogya Mandirs”.

    POSHAN Abhiyaan- targets stunting, wasting, and anemia.

    Education and Skill Development

    NEP 2020- 5+3+3+4 structure and the Academic Bank of Credits (ABC)

    Skill India Mission- trained over 1.63 crore candidates.

    Poverty and Living Standards

    Over 40 crore people were lifted out of multidimensional poverty between 2005 and 2021

    Kerala has been declared officially free from “extreme poverty” in 2025

    Jal Jeevan Mission- Provided tap water to over 14.5 crore rural households

    PM Awas Yojana (PMAY)- Over 4 crore pucca houses have been built

    PM Ujjwala Yojana- Over 10.3 crore LPG connections have been provided

    Financial Inclusion – Over 52 crore bank accounts have been opened

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach- increase expenditure on Health (2.5% of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Bottom-up Planning – Porto Alegre Brazil Model

    Expand MGNREGA and link with climate-resilient livelihoods (water conservation, afforestation).

    Women Empowerment by adopting best practices like Kerala’s Kudumbshree Model

    Focus on labour intensive sectors like textiles for job creation (Economic survey)

    This can ensure whole of government and life-cycle approach to realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    Caste can be defined as a localized, hereditary, and endogamous group characterized by a fixed rank in a ritual hierarchy (Varna).

    Reasons behind fluidity of caste system

    Sanskritization Mobility Process: Lower castes alter domestic customs and dietary rituals to mimic higher castes for upward mobility.

    Decline of Ritual Hierarchy – Notions of purity and pollution have weakened. Eg- Inter-caste dining in urban areas is common

    Occupational Mobility – Caste-occupation linkage has diluted. Eg- Dalits and OBCs in IT, civil services, academia.

    Urbanisation and Migration promote anonymity and mixed social spaces. Eg- Cosmopolitan life in metros like Mumbai and Bengaluru.

    Legal and Constitutional Framework has established equality before law irrespective of caste hierarchy. Eg- Article 14 and Article 17.

    Rise of Individualism – Personal choice gaining prominence over ascriptive identity. Eg- Love marriages, nuclear families.

    Growth of Class-Based Stratification in urban settings. Eg- rise of dalit and OBC Middle Class

    Democratic Electoral Mobilization: Sub-castes merge into political interest blocks, completely altering traditional micro-level hierarchies. Eg: AJGAR alliance in northern India

    Reasons behind static nature of caste identity

    Caste remains a basis for welfare and representation. Eg- Reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs.

    Occupational hierarchies along caste lines. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Social Discrimination along caste lines persists. Eg- Hatras rape case or Rohith Vemula death.

    Intersectionality – Caste intersects with gender, religion, and region. Eg- Dalit women facing multiple marginalities.

    New associational forms. Eg- Maratha Kranti Morcha, Patidar Anamat Andolan.

    Caste based economic groups. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) promoting “Dalit Capitalism”

    Caste-Based Spatial Segregation (Ghettoization) in modern cities

    Inter-generational Wealth Gap – The Oxfam Inequality Report (2024) highlights that the average wealth of a General Category family is nearly triple that of a Dalit family.

    Understanding contemporary India therefore requires recognising caste not as a static relic, but as a dynamic and evolving social reality operating alongside class, gender, religion, and region.

    Population and Migration

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    40% of India’s population is expected to reside in urban areas by 2030 (NITI Aayog). However, this growth has often been uneven and exclusionary rather than inclusive.

    Urbanization Leading to Segregation and Marginalization

    Arguments In Favor

    Gated Communities – Eg- separate elevators and entryways for domestic staff.

    Infrastructure-Induced Displacement (Gentrification)- Eg- Dharavi redevelopment project

    “Ghettoization”– systematic exclusion of low-income groups from the social, economic, and physical benefits of the city. Eg- 17% urban population lives in slums

    Limited access to basic amenities like health and education.

    Low-productivity equilibrium – Cities continue to absorb labour, but governance systems fail to integrate workers into formal housing, transport and service networks. (Economic Survey 2025-26)

    Persistence of Caste-Based Segregation- Eg- denial of rental housing to Dalits and Muslims

    The “Poverty Tax”- Eg- Slum dwellers in Pune pay up to 20% more for water per liter than those with piped municipal connections in nearby societies.

    Exclusionary Urban Planning – Master plans prioritise commercial and elite residential zones.

    Social Stigma – Slums viewed as illegal or undesirable spaces.

    Gendered Marginalization – Poor women face compounded exclusion in cities. Eg- Insecure work, unsafe transport, and lack of childcare.

    Arguments Against

    Urban Anonymity – Reduced rigidity of caste and kinship controls.

    Social Mobility- meritocratic nature of cities allow youth from lower strata to bypass traditional social barriers and achieve rapid upward mobility.

    Gig Economy- Platforms like Zepto, Swiggy, and Urban Company provide immediate employment for low-skilled migrants.

    Entrepreneurial Opportunities – Eg- Street vending

    Political Visibility – Urban concentration enables mobilisation. Eg- Slum dwellers’ associations

    Targeted Urban Welfare Schemes to mitigate exclusion. Eg- PM Awas Yojana (Urban), PM SVANidhi

    Way Forward

    Scaling ‘SAHAYOG’ initiative of Odisha government at Pan India level

    Inclusive urban planning with affordable housing near workplaces

    In-situ slum upgrading instead of peripheral relocation

    Universal access to basic services

    Affordable mass transport systems

    With rights-based, inclusive, and people-centric urban policies, cities can instead become spaces of opportunity, dignity, and upward mobility for the urban poor.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    Food security refers to a situation where all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food (FAO).

    According to the 2025 Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC), over 295 million people faced acute hunger last year, with climate extremes being a primary driver.

    Consequences of climate change on food security in tropical countries

    Decline in Crop Yields – Eg- rice and wheat yields in South Asia may decline by 10-20% by 2050 due to warming.

    Increased Frequency of Droughts affects rain-fed agriculture. Eg- Horn of Africa droughts have caused repeated crop failures and food shortages.

    Extreme Weather Events – Damage to crops and agricultural infrastructure. Eg- flood damage to paddy fields in Bangladesh.

    Heat Stress on Crops reduce photosynthesis and crop growth. Eg- Maize yields in tropical Africa and Latin America are projected to decline by up to 24% by 2030 if current warming trends persist.

    Decline in Fisheries – Eg- Tropical reef-based fisheries in Indonesia and the Philippines have seen a 20% decline in catch potential since 2020 due to coral bleaching.

    Spread of Crop Pests and Diseases – Warmer climates favour pest outbreaks. Eg- 2025-26 Locust swarms in the Horn of Africa and South Asia have devastated over 200,000 hectares of farmland.

    Loss of Arable Land due to sea-level rise and salinisation. Eg- saltwater intrusion in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta impacting rice paddies.

    Reduced Nutritional Quality of Crops – Elevated CO₂ may reduce nutrient content in staples. Eg- declining protein and micronutrient levels in rice and wheat.

    Livestock Productivity Decline – Heat stress affects animal health and milk production.

    Food Price Volatility and Poverty – Climate shocks disrupt supply chains and raise food prices.

    Heatwaves are disrupting the synchronization between flowering plants and their pollinators. Eg- decline in native bee populations in Brazil impacting the yields of high-value tropical fruits and nuts.

    Soil Degradation and Erosion-Intense tropical storms strip away the nutrient-rich topsoil (humus), leading to long-term infertility.

    Way Forward

    Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)- Promoting integrated systems that increase productivity and resilience while reducing emissions.

    Diversification of Cropping Systems – Promoting millets, pulses and climate-resilient crops.

    Development of Heat-Tolerant Varieties- Investing in “Scuba Rice” (flood-tolerant) and drought-resistant C4 crops like millets and sorghum.

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)- Implementing “Sponge Farm” techniques to capture monsoon runoff and recharge groundwater for dry spells.

    Agroforestry and Intercropping- Planting nitrogen-fixing trees alongside crops to provide shade, improve soil moisture, and diversify income.

    Strengthening Cold Chains- Investing in solar-powered refrigerated storage and hermetic bags to reduce post-harvest spoilage.

    Promoting Crop Insurance- Scaling up “Weather-Index Based Insurance” to protect farmers against total financial collapse after a climate disaster.

    Circular Food Systems- Reducing food waste and converting agricultural by-products into biogas or organic fertilizers.

    International Climate Finance- Ensuring that the Loss and Damage Fund (operationalized at COP28/29) is accessible to tropical nations for rebuilding food systems.

    Tropical countries are the “frontline states” in the war against climate-induced hunger. A global commitment to limit warming to 1.5^ C and a radical shift from “exploitative” to “regenerative” food systems is needed.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore were towering thinkers of modern India who shared a commitment to freedom, yet differed significantly in their visions of India’s engagement with modernity.

    Difference between Gandhi and Tagore on EDUCATION

    Difference Between Gandhi and Tagore on NATIONALISM

    Similarities

    Commitment to India’s Freedom – Eg- Tagore renounced his British knighthood (1919)

    Both believed politics must be guided by moral values. Eg- Gandhi’s satya and ahimsa and Tagore’s humanist ethics.

    Critique of Blind Westernisation

    Both saw education as central to societal transformation.

    Both valued India’s spiritual and cultural heritage. Eg- Use of Indian symbols by Gandhi and revival of Indian art, music, and literature by Tagore.

    Opposition to Violence and Militarism

    Concern for Social Harmony – Both sought unity across caste, religion, and region.

    Despite differences in method, Gandhi and Tagore converged in their ethical vision, making them complementary architects of modern Indian thought.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    India accounts for approximately 37% of global female suicide deaths. It is now the leading cause of death for Indian women aged 15-39.

    Causes Behind Increasing Suicide Among Young Women

    Housewives – over 50% of suicides

    Marriage-related pressures and domestic violence

    social isolation, lack of economic agency, and the “unseen” nature of domestic labor

    Students

    Academic and career stress – Rising aspirations without sufficient support. Eg- Student suicides in Kota.

    Inadequate counselling facilities in schools, colleges, and hostels.

    Working women

    Cyberbullying and Online harassment culture affect self-worth. Eg- Trolling, non-consensual sharing of images.

    Workplace discrimination and sexual harassment

    Social causes

    Intersectional vulnerabilities – Caste, class, and rural disadvantage intensify distress. Eg- Dalit and rural women

    Patriarchal control – Restrictions on mobility, education, and choice generate helplessness. Eg- Family opposition to inter-caste or inter-faith relationships.

    Child Marriages – 23% women are married before 18 (NFHS-5) – exposes them to abusive relationship

    Weak institutional support systems –

    Mental health neglect and stigma – Depression and anxiety often go undiagnosed and untreated.

    India has 0.75 psychiatrist per 1 lakh people (global avg – 13)

    Way Forward

    Implementation of National Suicide Prevention Strategy to reduce suicide mortality by 10% by 2030.

    WHO’s “LIVE LIFE” Approach- limiting access to means , responsible media reporting to prevent “copycat” suicides, and fostering life skills in adolescents.

    Training “frontline” community members like ASHA workers to identify early warning signs and providing counselling.

    Implementing Saha Guidelines for preventing student suicide

    Integrating “Cyber-Safety” and mental health resilience into the school curriculum.

    Workplace Wellness Mandates- Eg- POSH workshops and mental health support

    As highlighted by World Health Organization, suicide is preventable through timely intervention and supportive environments.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

  • ,

    Colonial rule profoundly altered tribal life by disrupting their autonomy, economy, culture, and customary institutions, leading to sustained resistance across India.

    Impact of colonial rule on tribals

    Political Impact

    Loss of political autonomy – Expansion of colonial authority into previously autonomous regions. Eg- Displacement of Munda chiefs in Chotanagpur.

    Undermining of tribal leadership – Authority of headmen replaced by colonial officials. Eg- Appointment of British-appointed diwans in tribal tracts.

    Criminal Tribes Act (1871)- Many nomadic and forest tribes were branded as “hereditary criminals” by birth, leading to their police harassment and forced settlement.

    Economic Impact

    Land alienation – Introduction of private property eroded communal ownership. Eg- Transfer of tribal land to moneylenders in Chotanagpur.

    Exploitative forest policies – Restrictions on grazing, shifting cultivation, and forest produce
    under Indian Forest Acts of 1865 and 1878.

    Indebtedness and exploitation by traders and mahajans. Eg- dikus in Santhal regions

    Forced labour in plantations and mines. Eg- in Assam tea plantations.

    Social Impact

    Disruption of traditional social structures – Breakdown of clan-based systems.

    Imposition of alien legal systems – Customary law replaced by British civil and criminal law.

    Suppression of customary practices linked to forests and land. Eg- Criminalisation of shifting cultivation.

    Missionary activities and forced conversions among tribals Eg- Resistance to Christian missionaries among Mundas and Oraons.

    Tribal response to colonial oppression

    Legal and Institutional Response

    Petitions and Memorandums- Some tribes initially sought redress through official channels. Eg- early phases of the Kol Mutiny.

    Demand for separate administration – Eg- Creation of Santhal Parganas as a separate district.

    Revolutionary and Armed Resistance

    Mass armed uprisings – Violent resistance against colonial rule and intermediaries. Eg- Santhal Rebellion (1855-56).

    Leader-centric movements – Mobilisation under charismatic leaders. Eg- Birsa Munda’s Ulgulan (1899-1900).

    Resistance to revenue and forest laws – Attacks on symbols of colonial authority. Eg- Kol Uprising (1831-32).

    Rampa Rebellion (1922-24)- Alluri Sitarama Raju led a guerrilla war in the Eastern Ghats against the Madras Forest Act.

    Participation in National Movement (Non-Violent Response)

    Tana Bhagat Movement (1914)- Jatra Bhagat used “satyagraha” against British and zamindars

    During the Civil Disobedience Movement, tribes in Central Provinces and Karnataka organized “Forest Satyagrahas” to defy grazing and timber laws.

    Quit India Movement- Tribal leaders like Lakshman Nayak in Odisha mobilized their communities.

    Zeliangrong Movement- Under Rani Gaidinliu in the Northeast, the movement transitioned from a socio-religious reform to a political struggle for Indian independence.

    The colonial experience of exploitation shaped post-independence tribal policy, reflected in Nehru’s Tribal Panchsheel

    Respect for tribal culture,

    Protection of land rights

    Minimal administrative interference

    Development without cultural destruction

    Movement Specific

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer: