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  • How to measure a Mountain?

    China and Nepal have announced Mount Everest is 0.86 m taller than the 8,848 m accepted globally so far.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.When you travel to the Himalayas, you will see the following:

    1. Deep gorges
    2. U-turn river courses
    3. Parallel mountain ranges
    4. Steep gradients causing land-sliding

    Which of the above can be said to be the evidences for the Himalayas being young fold mountains?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 1, 2 and 4 only

    (c) 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Scaling a mountains’ height

    • The basic principle that was used earlier is very simple and uses  only trigonometry which most of us are familiar with, or at least can recall.
    • There are three sides and three angles in any triangle. If we know any three of these quantities, provided one of them is a side, all the others can be calculated.
    • In a right-angled triangle, one of the angles is already known, so if we know any other angle and one of the sides, the others can be found out.
    • This principle can be applied for measuring the height of any object that does not offer the convenience of dropping a measuring tape from top to bottom.

    Accuracy issues

    • For small hills and mountains, whose top can be observed from relatively close distances, this can give quite precise measurements.
    • But for Mount Everest and other high mountains, there are some other complications.
    • These again arise from the fact that we do not know where the base of the mountain is.

    Measuring against sea level

    • Generally, for practical purposes, the heights are measured above mean sea level (MSL). Moreover, we need to find the distance to the mountain.
    • This is done through a painstaking process called high-precision levelling. Starting from the coastline, we calculate step by step the difference in height, using special instruments.
    • This is how we know the height of any city from mean sea level.

    Adjusting gravitation anomaly

    • But there is one additional problem to be contended with — gravity. Gravity is different in different places. It means that even sea level cannot be considered to be uniform at all places.
    • So, the local gravity is also measured to calculate the local sea level. Nowadays sophisticated portable gravitometers are available that can be carried even to mountain peaks.

    Technology solutions

    • These days GPS is widely used to determine coordinates and heights, even of mountains.
    • But, GPS gives precise coordinates of the top of a mountain relative to an ellipsoid which is an imaginary surface mathematically modelled to represent Earth.
    • This surface differs from the mean sea level. Similarly, overhead flying planes equipped with laser beams (LiDAR) can also be used to get the coordinates.

    How accurate are China/Nepal’s apprehensions?

    • Considering that during 1952-1954, when neither GPS and satellite techniques were available nor the sophisticated gravimeters, the task of determining the height of Mount Everest was not easy.
    • Nepal and China have said they have measured Mount Everest to be 86 cm higher than the 8,848 m that it was known to be.
    • But these have been explained in terms of geological processes that might be altering the height of Everest. The accuracy of the 1954 result has never been questioned.
    • Most scientists now believe that the height of Mount Everest is increasing at a very slow rate. This is because of the northward movement of the Indian tectonic plate that is pushing the surface up.
    • Big earthquake, like the one that happened in Nepal in 2015, can alter the heights of mountains. Such events have happened in the past.

  • India’s Commitment for Paris Agreement

    This week marks the fifth anniversary of the Paris Agreement, where formidable climate diplomacy ushered 196 rich and poor countries into a legally binding treaty seeking to hold global heating below 2°C at this century’s end.

    Try this PYQ first, then head with the news:

    Q.With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1.    The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.
    2.    The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 20C or even 1.50C above pre-industrial levels.
    3.    Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate S 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    (a)    1 and 3 only

    (b)    2 only

    (c)    2 and 3 only

    (d)    1, 2 and 3

    The Paris Agreement

    • The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016.
    • Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
    • To achieve this long-term temperature goal, countries aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible to achieve a climate-neutral world by mid-century.
    • It is a landmark process because, for the first time, a binding agreement brings all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.

    How does it function?

    • Implementation of the Paris Agreement requires economic and social transformation, based on the best available science.
    • The Agreement works on a 5- year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action carried out by countries.
    • By 2020, countries submit their plans for climate action known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs).

    NDCs

    • In their NDCs, countries communicate actions they will take to reduce their Greenhouse Gas emissions in order to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement.
    • Countries also communicate in the NDCs actions they will take to build resilience to adapt to the impacts of rising temperatures.

    Long-Term Strategies

    • To better frame the efforts towards the long-term goal, the Paris Agreement invites countries to formulate and submit by 2020 long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies (LT-LEDS).
    • LT-LEDS provide the long-term horizon to the NDCs. Unlike NDCs, they are not mandatory.
    • Nevertheless, they place the NDCs into the context of countries’ long-term planning and development priorities, providing a vision and direction for future development.

    India’s commitment

    In 2015, ahead of the UN significant climate conference in Paris, India announced three major voluntary commitments called the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC):

    1. Improving the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33–35% by 2030 over 2005 levels
    2. Increasing the share of non-fossil fuels-based electricity to 40% by 2030 and
    3. Enhancing its forest cover, thereby absorbing 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide

    A success (?)

    • The Environment Minister said that we have achieved 21% of its emissions intensity reduction target as a proportion of its GDP in line with its pledge to a 33-35% reduction by 2030.
    • India was the only major G20 country that was on track towards keeping to its nationally determined commitments to halt runaway global warming.

  • What are Rossby Waves?

    Droughts in India have historically been associated with El Nino, anomalous warming of the equatorial Pacific, but Indian scientists have found some relevance in Rossby Waves.

    Q.The determinants of Indian Monsoon are no more limited to the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Discuss.

    El-Nino alone do not cause drought

    • The study says that nearly six out of 10 droughts, in non-El Nino years occurred during the Indian summer-monsoon season in the past century.
    • They may have been driven by atmospheric disturbances from the North Atlantic region.
    • In an El Niño year, abnormally warm equatorial Pacific waters pull moisture-laden clouds away from the subcontinent.
    • But the IISc Bangalore study shows that in non-El Nino years, these droughts are a consequence of a sudden and steep drop in rainfall in late August.

    Then, how were droughts induced?

    • In an El Nino year, the rainfall deficit departure from a long-term average set in early around mid-June and progressively worsen.
    • Researchers tried to trace this drought back to a forcing agent or system that influences the behaviour over India.
    • They found, the winds that were prevalent in these non-El Niño drought years.

    Another factor: The Rossby Waves

    • The researchers noted that winds in the upper atmosphere are interacting with a deep cyclonic circulation above the abnormally cold North Atlantic waters.
    • The resulting wave of air currents called a Rossby wave, curved down from the North Atlantic squeezed in by the Tibetan plateau and hits the subcontinent around mid-August.
    • This has a suppressing effect on rainfall and throws off the monsoon that was trying to recover from the June slump.

    Now scratch your basics on Planetary Winds. “Go back to the NCERTs !”

    What are Rossby Waves?

    • They are giant meanders in high-altitude winds that have a major influence on the weather.
    • They are influenced by the Coriolis force and pressure gradient.
    • The wave’s usual course is to go from west to east, but not towards the equator.

    Points to be noted 



    • The Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean seem to be at the forefront of all discussions surrounding Indian monsoon droughts.
    • Thus beyond looking at the Pacific Ocean it is important to consider other influences on the Indian monsoon from outside the tropics.
    • It is perhaps time to focus just as much on mid-latitude influences, which might aid in getting a better handle on enhanced predictability of monsoon variability.

  • What is Aurora Borealis?

    Northern Lights, also known as aurora borealis could be visible in regions such as in the northern parts of Illinois and Pennsylvania in the US.

    Try this PYQ:

    What is a coma, in the context of Astronomy?

    (a) Bright half of material on the comet

    (b) Long tail of dust

    (c) Two asteroids orbiting each other

    (d) Two planets orbiting each other

    Aurora

    • Auroras occur when charged particles ejected from the Sun’s surface — called the solar wind — enter the Earth’s atmosphere.
    • While flowing toward Earth, the fast-moving solar wind carries with it the Sun’s magnetic field, which disrupts the magnetosphere — the region of space around Earth in which the magnetic field of our planet is dominant.
    • When the Sun’s magnetic field approaches Earth, the protective magnetic field radiating from our planet’s poles deflects the former, thus shielding life on Earth.
    • However, as this happens, the protective fields couple together to form funnels, through which charged solar wind particles are able to stream down to the poles.
    • At the north and south poles, the charged particles interact with different gases in the atmosphere, causing a display of light in the sky.
    • This display, known as an aurora, is seen from the Earth’s high latitude regions (called the auroral oval), and is active all year round.

    Behind the name

    • In the northern part of our globe, the polar lights are called aurora borealis or Northern Lights and are seen from the US (Alaska), Canada, Iceland, Greenland, Norway, Sweden and Finland.
    • In the south, they are called aurora australis or southern lights and are visible from high latitudes in Antarctica, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand and Australia.

    Where is it observed?

    • Generally, the auroral oval is usually witnessed far up in the Polar Regions or the high latitude regions of Europe, like in Norway.
    • But occasionally, the oval expands, and the lights become visible at lower latitudes.
    • This happens during periods of high solar activity, such as the arrival of solar storms.
    • Solar activities include solar flares, solar energetic particles, high-speed solar wind and Coronal Mass Ejections (CME).

  • A History of Climate Change Negotiations

    China’s announcement of achieving net-zero by 2060 is a stepping stone in the fight against climate change. But it means nothing until countries share the goals they intend to follow.

    Why are we reading this news?

    We often get to hear that UPSC suddenly switches to basics after maneuvering over current affairs. This news is a perfect example which strikes the balance between basics and current affairs.

    Climate change: A disaster in making

    • Anthropogenic climate change can be traced back to the industrial revolution.
    • The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) greenhouse gas has increased to 415 parts per million (ppm) from 280 ppm since then.
    • A global momentum, therefore, was required to get all countries on board.

    Realization of climate action: Birth of UNFCCC

    • The idea led to the formation of the United Nations Framework for Climate Change Convention (UNFCCC, also known as ‘The Convention’) in 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
    • The convention divided the countries on the basis of their differing commitments: Annex I and II consisted of industrialized and developed countries and Non-Annex I comprised developing countries.

    Wait! You need not remember everything* in this newscard. But, have walk through the timeline; it will concretize your idea about the global climate action and the possible way forward.

    A timeline

    The Conference of Parties (CoP) is the supreme decision-making body at the convention and comprises states that are party to it.

    COP 1:

    • At CoP1 in Berlin 1995, the Convention highlighted the shortcomings of UNFCCC — the voluntary nature of the agreement.
    • It stressed how no substantive action was taken to address the cause against climate change, which in turn put forward the need for “legally binding” actions.

    COP 2:

    The proposal of legally binding targets was further emphasised upon in COP2 in Geneva in 1996.

    COP 3:

    • In COP3 in Kyoto in 1997, the legally binding targets were approved of by different countries. They came to be known as the Kyoto Protocol.
    • It is considered to be one of the most important steps despite its late acceptance for it paved the way for further negotiations through legally binding targets for Annex I countries and establishment of carbon markets.
    • The mechanisms proposed by Kyoto Protocol to reduce emissions included Joint Implementation, Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) and Emissions Trading.

    COP 4 and COP 5:

    In COP4 in 1998 and COP5 in 1999, the rulebook for implementing the Kyoto Protocol was on the process with the adoption of the Buenos Aires Plan of Action in COP4, along with continued negotiation efforts in COP5.

    COP 7:

    • In COP7 in Marrakesh in 2001, the guidelines for flexible mechanisms of joint implementation, CDM markets, emissions trading was agreed upon. It came to be known as the Marrakesh Accord.
    • It was particularly important because mitigation efforts had already started and special attention was given to developing countries.
    • It asked them to build their capacities and ensuring technology transfer through least developed countries (LDC) Fund, special climate change fund (SCCF) and adaptation fund.

    COP 8:

    The COP8 in 2002, which was held in “New Delhi”, emphasised on adaptation measures and stressed that poverty alleviation and development were the utmost priority of developing countries.

    COP 10:

    • The future course of action was discussed in COP10 in Montreal in 2005 after Russia ratified the Protocol in 2004 at COP10 in Argentina.
    • A two-track approach was formed, which included the constructive implementation of UNFCCC as well as formation an ad-hoc committee for the Kyoto Protocol.

    COP 15:

    • Copenhagen COP 2009 was set by the ad-hoc working group on Kyoto protocol formed during Montreal COP 2005.
    • The group agreed to have a deal in 2009 regarding a legally binding climate regime from 2012-2020.
    • The discussions lost track when developed countries started advocating for burden-sharing with developing countries.

    COP 16:

    • The disappointment of Copenhagen was turned into an opportunity in Cancun 2010, where the Copenhagen Accord was accepted.
    • It looked forward to a second commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol and established the Cancun Adaptation Framework.
    • For the first time, a temperature target of 2 degrees Celsius was included. The Green climate fund was formed and developed countries agreed to contribute.

    COP 17:

    • Following Cancun, Durban COP 2011 took place wherein the seed of the Paris Agreement was sown.
    • The seed started sprouting in Doha COP 2012, where countries decided to avoid the gap between Kyoto and next legal climate regime.
    • So, the second regime of Kyoto was decided from 2012-2020. The third pillar of loss and damage was incorporated for the first time.

    COP 20:

    In COP in Lima in 2014, countries submitted their own climate ambitions in the form of intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs).

    COP 21: The Pathbreaker

    • In 2015, the Paris agreement was finally adopted and the INDCs were annexed to it.
    • It was agreed that the Paris agreement would start from 2021.
    • 2015 was known as a year of multilateral agreements because, in addition to the Paris agreement, sustainable development goals and Sendai Framework was also adopted.
    • 2015, therefore, came out to be a successful year.

    Post Paris Agreement

    • The retreat of developed countries: In all these post-2020 talks, developed countries tactfully avoided their pre-2020 commitments by not ratifying the Kyoto protocol.
    • Post-Paris discussions for the finalization of the Rulebook began.
    • Most were finalised in 2018, except the market mechanism and measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) of greenhouse gas which are due in COP26 in 2021.

    Agenda for next COP in 2021

    • The next COP will be in 2021 in Glasgow with two sets of agendas for discussion.
    • The first will be to complete the rule-book of Paris Agreement implementation, whose two aspects regarding Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM) architecture and MRV framework are yet to be completed.
    • The second will be to ensure smooth implementation of the Paris Agreement from 1st January 2021.
    • Countries are expected to revise their NDCs as the present course of activities is projected to cause an increase in temperature of 2.8-3 C rise.

    The situation today: Nothing beyong big promises

    • China’s recent announcement of achieving net-zero by 2060 comes across as the stepping stone of future climate change mitigation efforts.
    • Political announcements, however, mean nothing until countries actually share the goals they intend to follow.
    • On the contrary, India is the only country whose NDCs are in line with the 2 degrees Celsius target.
    • Another substantial happening in the domain of climate change includes Joe Biden’s promise of joining the Paris Agreement; it would bring the US back to the GCF fund.

  • Cattle meat residue found in Indus Valley vessels

    A new study has found the presence of animal products, including cattle and buffalo meat, in ceramic vessels dating back about 4,600 years at seven Indus Valley Civilization sites in present-day Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

    The Karnataka Assembly has passed the controversial Karnataka Prevention of Slaughter and Preservation of Cattle Bill, 2020, amid protests.

    Beef politics has always gained traction in India being a cheap source of protein for masses versus religious sentiments of the fundamentalists.

    How was the study conducted?

    • The study is the first to look into the absorbed lipid residues in pottery from multiple sites, including Rakhigarhi, Farmana and Masudpur.
    • Lipids are relatively less prone to degradation and have been discovered in pottery from archaeological contexts around the world.

    Key findings

    • The high proportions of cattle bones suggest a cultural preference for beef consumption across Indus populations, supplemented by the consumption of mutton/lamb.
    • The study found little evidence of dairy products. However, there could be regional differences as a recent study of vessels in Gujarat had found evidence of dairy products.
    • About 50-60% of domestic animal bones found at Indus Valley sites come from cattle/buffalo.
    • It says that at Harappa, 90% of the cattle were kept alive until they were three or three-and-a-half years, suggesting that females were used for dairying production, whereas male animals were used for traction.

  • Revised height of Mount Everest

    Nepal and China jointly announced the new height of Mount Everest as 8,848.86 meters.

    8,848 metres — the answer to one of the most widely popular quiz questions, and a number drilled into the minds of school students around the world for decades, is set for a revision.

    Mt. Everest

    • Mount Everest or Sagarmatha, Earth’s highest mountain above sea level, is located in the Himalayas between China and Nepal -– the border between them running across its summit point.
    • Its current official elevation – 8,848.86m – places it more than 200m above the world’s second-highest mountain, K2, which is 8,611m tall and located in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
    • The mountain gets its English name from Sir George Everest, a colonial-era geographer who served as the Surveyor General of India in the mid-19th century.
    • Considered an elite climbing destination, Everest was first scaled in 1953 by the Indian-Nepalese Tenzing Norgay and New Zealander Edmund Hillary.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.When you travel to the Himalayas, you will see the following:

    1. Deep gorges
    2. U-turn river courses
    3. Parallel mountain ranges
    4. Steep gradients causing land-sliding

    Which of the above can be said to be the evidences for the Himalayas being young fold mountains?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 1, 2 and 4 only

    (c) 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Everest’s first survey

    • The mission to measure the world’s highest peak was taken up on a serious note in 1847 and culminated with the finding of a team led by Andrew Waugh of the Royal Surveyor General of India.
    • The team discovered that ‘Peak 15’ — as Mt Everest was referred to then — was the highest mountain, contrary to the then-prevailing belief that Mt Kanchenjunga (8,582 m) was the highest peak in the world.
    • Another belief, prevailing even today, is that 8,840 m is not the height that was actually determined by the 19th-century team.
    • That survey, based on trigonometric calculations, is known as the Great Trigonometric Survey of India.

    Why is the height being revised?

    • The height of the summit, however, is known to change because of tectonic activity, such as the 2015 Nepal earthquake.
    • Its measurement over the decades has also depended on who was surveying.
    • Another debate is whether the height should be based on the highest rock point or the highest snow point.

  • Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2020

    India ranked high along with the European Union and the United Kingdom in the latest edition of the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2020 released by non-profit Germanwatch.

    It’s a very rare feat that India has performed so better in any climate-related index. We can use this data to highlight India’s dedicated efforts for Paris Agreement.

    Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI)

    • The CCPI is an independent monitoring tool for tracking countries’ climate protection performance. It has been published annually since 2005.
    • It evaluates 57 countries and the European Union, which together generate 90%+ of global greenhouse gas emissions.
    • Using standardised criteria, the CCPI looks at four categories, with 14 indicators: Greenhouse Gas Emissions (40% of the overall score), Renewable Energy (20%), Energy Use (20%), and Climate Policy (20%).
    • The CCPI’s unique climate policy section evaluates countries’ progress in implementing policies working towards achieving the Paris Agreement goals.

    Global scenario

    • No country was doing enough to meet the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement, according to the index.
    • Six G20 countries were ranked among very low performers. The United States, with a rank of 61, was the worst performer.

    India’s performance

    • India, for the second time in a row, continued to remain in the top 10. The country scored 63.98 points out of 100.
    • It received high ratings on all CCPI indicators except ‘renewable energy’, where it was categorised as having a ‘medium’ performance.
    • Last year, India had been ranked at the ninth position, with an overall score of 66.02.
    • India needed to focus more on renewable energy, both, as a mitigation strategy and for its post-novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) green recovery, the report said.

    Renewable energy

    • No country was rated very high on indicators defining the ‘renewable energy’ category.
    • India has been ranked at 27th out of 57 countries under the category this time. Last year, it was ranked at 26th.
    • India’s performance has been rated as ‘medium’ for its current share of renewable energy. Its performance for the development of renewable energy supply during the last year was rated as ‘high’.

    A positive sign for India

    • India’s improved policy framework has been responsible for the country’s good performance in this global index. However, the report underlined the need for long-term planning.
    • Unlike the other two ‘BASIC’ countries of China and South Africa, India is yet to announce its mitigation strategy.

  • Places in news: Temple architecture of Hampi

    Tourists can no longer get too close to the iconic stone chariot in front of the Vijaya Vittala Temple due to a protective ring by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

    Try this question from CSP 2019:

    Q.Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of

    (a) Chalukya

    (b) Chandela

    (c) Rashtrakuta

    (d) Vijayanagara

    The Vijayanagara Capital: Hampi

    • Hampi or Hampe, also referred to as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in east-central Karnataka.
    • Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century.
    • The old city of Hampi was a prosperous, wealthy and grand city near the Tungabhadra River, with numerous temples, farms and trading markets.
    • By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was the world’s second-largest medieval-era city after Beijing, and probably India’s richest at that time, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal.
    • The Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of sultanates; its capital was conquered, pillaged and destroyed by sultanate armies in 1565, after which Hampi remained in ruins.

    Major attractions

    • The Krishna temple complex, Narasimha, Ganesa, Hemakuta group of temples, Achyutaraya temple complex, Vitthala temple complex, Pattabhirama temple complex, Lotus Mahal complex, can be highlighted.
    • Suburban townships (puras) surrounded the large temple complexes contains subsidiary shrines, bazaars, residential areas and tanks applying the unique hydraulic technologies.
    • The Vitthla temple is the most exquisitely ornate structure on the site and represents the culmination of Vijayanagara temple architecture.
    • It is a fully developed temple with associated buildings like Kalyana Mandapa and Utsava Mandapa within a cloistered enclosure pierced with three entrance Gopurams.
    • In addition to the typical spaces present in contemporary temples, it boasts of a Garuda shrine fashioned as a granite ratha and a grand bazaar street.

  • Species in news: Red Sea Turtles

    Turtle populations in the Red Sea could be turning overwhelmingly female because of a rise in sea temperatures caused due to anthropogenic climate change, a new study has showed.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Consider the following fauna of India:

    1. Gharial
    2. Leatherback turtle
    3. Swamp deer

    Which of the above is/are endangered?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1, 2 and 3

    (d) None

    Red Sea Turtles

    • There are seven extant species worldwide, five of which can be found in the Red Sea: the green turtle, the hawksbill turtle, the loggerhead turtle, the olive ridley turtle and the leatherback turtle.
    • In order to maintain a 50:50 ratio of male and female in the population, a temperature of 29.2 degrees Celsius is pivotal.
    • Above this, hatchlings would be predominantly female.
    • The sand temperatures at four of the sites exceeded 29.2 degrees; leading the team to the conclusion that ‘feminization’ of the population could be already happening.

    Their significance

    • Marine turtles—as all top predators—have a prominent role in maintaining balanced and healthy ecosystems, in particular seagrass beds and coral reefs.
    • They also help in transporting nutrients towards naturally nutrient-poor ecosystems (the nesting beaches), and providing food and transportation for other marine species (e.g., barnacles and commensal crabs).
    • Marine turtles also play an important role in the economy of the tourism industry.