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GS Paper: GS2

  • ‘To ensure effective implementation of policies addressing water, sanitation and hygiene needs, the identification of beneficiary segments is to be synchronized with the anticipated outcomes’ Examine the statement in the context of the WASH scheme.

  • In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

    The US withdrawal from the JCPOA (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action) in 2018 and subsequent reimposition of sanctions, has heightened tensions in West Asia.

    Impact on India’s National Interests

    Energy Security

    Regional instability inflates global oil prices, aggravating India’s current account deficit and rupee depreciation.

    Connectivity Challenges

    US sanctions complicate financing and insurance for the Chabahar Port and INSTC– critical to India’s access to Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Europe.

    India’s exports to Iran (pharmaceuticals, rice, machinery) face banking restrictions.

    Strategic and Diplomatic Dilemmas

    Challenge of maintaining strategic partnerships with both Washington and Tehran, while avoiding diplomatic friction.

    Security Concerns- Escalation in the Strait of Hormuz threatens India’s sea-borne energy supplies and security of Indian diaspora in the Gulf. Eg- Red sea crisis in 2024

    How India Should Respond

    Short-term Measures

    Energy Diversification- Strengthen long-term import contracts with Saudi Arabia, UAE, Russia, and the US, and expand strategic oil reserves.

    Protect Maritime Routes- Enhance naval surveillance in the Arabian Sea under SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region).

    Use rupee-rial trade mechanisms and alternate payment channels.

    Medium to Long-term Strategy

    Secure waivers for Chabahar Port and accelerate linkage with INSTC to strengthen access to Eurasia.

    Energy Transition- Fast-track investments in renewables, LNG, and green hydrogen.

    Regional Multilateralism- Promote India-GCC-Iran dialogue for maritime security and conflict de-escalation.

    Supporting IAEA-based diplomacy for restoring JCPOA through peaceful dialogue and achieving Nuclear disarmament.

    A balanced, multi-vector foreign policy is essential to safeguard India’s economic and security interests while sustaining its role as a stabilizing power in West Asia.

  • What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?

    The WTO, established in 1995 under Uruguay Round of the GATT, was designed to promote rules-based multilateral trade and ensure that global trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely.

    Major Challenges Facing the WTO

    Since 2019, WTO’s dispute settlement system has been defunct due to US blocking judge appointments.

    Deadlock over Doha Development Agenda and Agreement on Agriculture

    Opposition of developing countries for ‘New Issues’

    WTO rules lag behind in Digital Trade & E-commerce

    Dispute over “Developing Country” Status – The US opposes self-declared developing status at WTO, arguing that countries like India and China should be treated as developed.

    Mega-regional trade pacts like the TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership), bypassing WTO norms.

    Proposals by India in the High-Level Mini-Ministerial Meeting

    Revival of the WTO Dispute Settlement System to maintain WTO’s credibility and rule-based order.

    Institutional & Negotiation Reforms

    Move from consensus-only decision-making to hybrid or majority-based models for efficiency.

    Enhance voice of developing nations in agenda-setting and committee representation

    Reform of Special and Differential Treatment – Retain S&DT as a core principle ensuring policy space for developing countries.

    Agricultural Trade Reform

    Rationalize domestic support and export subsidies in developed nations (EU, US).

    Permanent solutions for public food grain stockholding programs

    Ensure food security exemptions are protected under Article 18.4 of AoA.

    Tackling Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs) by ensuring transparency, science-based standards, and non-discriminatory application of NTBs.

    Addressing Distortions by Non-Market Economies – Eg- China’s export quotas on rare earths

    Develop balanced rules on data localization, digital taxation, and cross-border flows to prevent dominance of Big Tech

    Prevent misuse of green trade barriers as disguised protectionism. Eg- EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

    Permanent WTO Reform Council to propose systemic reforms every five years.

    India must lead the Global South coalition to ensure reforms are inclusive, equitable, and development-centric.

  • Citizens’ Charter is an ideal instrument of organizational transparency and accountability, but it has its own limitations. Identify the limitations and suggest measures for greater effectiveness or the Citizens Charter.

    The Citizen’s Charter, introduced in India in 1997 (DARPG) following the UK model, aims to make public services transparent, accountable, and citizen-centric by clearly defining service standards, timelines, and grievance redressal mechanisms.

    Role in Ensuring Transparency and Accountability

    Defines Service Standards – Eg- Passport Seva Kendra specifies delivery within 3 working days for Tatkal applications.

    Enhances Administrative Transparency – Makes procedures, responsibilities, and timelines public, reducing scope for arbitrariness and discretion.

    Promotes Accountability of Officials – Identifies responsible officers for each service and grievance redressal, ensuring answerability for delays or failures.

    Empowers Citizens to demand better service delivery, question inefficiencies, and seek grievance redressal through defined channels.

    Builds mutual expectations between government and citizens, enhancing trust in public institutions.

    Provides a benchmark for assessing departmental efficiency and monitoring service outcomes through periodic audits.

    Promotes feedback-based improvement by institutionalizing citizen input in service reforms.

    Limitations of Citizen’s Charter

    Charters are non-statutory and lack penal provisions for non-compliance, reducing accountability.

    Top Down Approach – Charters are formulated by bureaucrats without citizen consultation, making them non-representative and unrealistic.

    Low Public Awareness – Eg- only 36% of users knew of service standards (NITI Aayog, 2023).

    Weak Grievance Redressal – Absence of clear escalation mechanisms leads to ineffective resolution and loss of citizen confidence.

    Bureaucratic Resistance – Many departments treat the Charter as a procedural formality rather than a reform instrument.

    Poor Review and Monitoring – Charters are rarely updated or evaluated; lack of performance metrics weakens impact.

    Fragmented Implementation – No uniform structure or standards across ministries and states, causing inconsistency in service quality.

    Accessibility issues due to absence of regional language versions

    Measures for Greater Effectiveness

    Enact a Citizen’s Charter Act with penalties for non-compliance, similar to Right to Public Services Acts in MP and Bihar.

    Integration with Grievance Systems – Link Charters with CPGRAMS and State Service Guarantee Acts for real-time grievance tracking.

    Regular Review and Evaluation – Institutionalize annual audits and third-party evaluations to assess compliance and update service commitments.

    Conduct public awareness campaigns and train officials under the Sevottam Framework for citizen-oriented delivery.

    Technological Integration – Promote digital dashboards, online service tracking, and data-based performance monitoring.

    Performance Incentives and Accountability – Introduce reward mechanisms for compliant departments and penalties for persistent failures.

    By aligning it with the 2nd ARC recommendations, it can evolve from a symbolic commitment to a practical framework for responsive, transparent, and citizen-centric governance.

  • Assess the importance of Panchayat system in India as a part of local government. Apart from government grants, what sources the Panchayats can look out for financing developmental projects.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”.

    Importance of PRIs

    Rajni Kothari – Described local bodies as “schools of democracy” where political awareness and participation are cultivated at the grassroots level.

    Democratic Decentralization – Eg- Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign grants local bodies control over 40% of the state’s plan budget.

    Capacity Building– Training programs for PRI members. Eg- e-Panchayat initiative

    Efficient Local Service Delivery- Addresses local needs in sanitation, drinking water, roads, housing, and education. Eg- Hiware Bazar Model of watershed development.

    Transparency– Direct accountability to local constituents. Eg- Rajasthan’s Social Audit Mechanism

    Implementation of Schemes, ensuring that benefits reach the grassroots. Eg- MGNREGA.

    Financial Autonomy– PRIs have the power to levy taxes and mobilize resources, which helps them fund and manage local development projects.

    Conflict Resolution- Reports indicate a 30% reduction in petty disputes reaching district courts due to effective Panchayat mediation.

    Inclusivity– Reserving seats for women, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes. Eg- Women’s Representation at 46.44%

    Challenges

    “PRIs exist as over-structured but underpowered organisations.” (2nd ARC)

    No decentralisation of power, rather decentralisation of corruption – Mani Shankar Iyer Committee

    Dependence on higher tiers- Around 95% of Panchayat funds come from Central/State transfers, limiting fiscal autonomy.

    Limited own-source revenue- Poor tax collection efficiency (>1% own tax).

    Barriers to Local Taxation- Freebie culture and fear of losing popularity discourage local taxation.

    Incomplete devolution- less than 20% of States have transferred all 29 subjects under 11th Schedule (MoPR, 2022). (​​overall Panchayat Devolution Index is only 43.89% (2021-22))

    Centralised Welfare via Cash Transfers – The welfare state now relies on DBT through JAM, bypassing panchayats and reducing local accountability and participatory governance

    Shortage of staff- Average 0.67 Panchayat Secretaries per Gram Panchayat, as low as 0.33 in Uttar Pradesh.

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    Gender and social barriers leading to proxy control. (Sarpanch Pati)

    Alternate Sources of Panchayat Financing (Beyond Government Grants)

    Own Tax Revenues- Property/House tax, Profession tax, Market fees, and Entertainment tax.

    Non-Tax Revenues- Rent from panchayat buildings, water usage fees, license fees, and user charges for services.

    Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) for solid waste management, renewable energy, or tourism projects. Eg- waste-to-energy projects.

    Community Contributions- Voluntary labor (Shramdaan), local donations, and community funds for infrastructure.

    Borrowings and Bonds- Soft loans from NABARD and Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) for rural projects.

    Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)- Eg- Tata Steel CSR projects in Jharkhand villages for drinking water and sanitation.

    Using funds from MGNREGA, 15th FC grants for rural infrastructure development.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen State Finance Commissions (SFCs) with mandatory action on their recommendations.

    Manishankar Aiyar Committee recommendations – Adopt activity mapping for clear delineation of 3Fs – Funds, Functions, Functionaries.

    Flexible Funding Norms under CSS

    To realise the vision of “Gram Uday se Bharat Uday”, India needs second-generation Panchayati Raj reforms

  • Multiplicity of various commissions for the vulnerable sections or the society leads to problems or overlapping jurisdiction and duplication of functions. Is it better to merge all commissions into an umbrella Human Rights Commission? Argue your case.

    “The true measure of a democracy is how it treats its weakest members.” – Mahatma Gandhi

    The Indian state has established a network of statutory and constitutional commissions to uphold equality, dignity, and justice as envisioned in Articles 14-17, 21, and 46 of the Constitution.

    Problems of Overlapping Jurisdiction

    Ambiguity in Mandate – Example- Hathras case – NCSC & NCW both intervened.

    Parallel Investigations – Example- Bilkis Bano case – NHRC, NCW, and NCM all investigated.

    Lack of Coordination leads to contradictory recommendations.

    Confusion in Accountability – Citizens unclear which body to approach for redressal.

    Problems of Duplication of Functions

    Repetitive Reporting

    Fragmented Data Systems – Separate data collection on similar issues creates inconsistency.

    Resource Wastage – Each commission maintains its own secretariat, inquiry cells, and legal divisions, leading to inefficiency.

    Overlapping Policy Recommendations, causing delay and duplication.

    Merging of all commissions into an umbrella HR Commission

    Arguments in Favour

    Uniformity- Brings consistency in standards, inquiry, and reporting across all vulnerable groups.

    Resource Efficiency- Prevents duplication of staff, budgets, and administrative infrastructure.

    Accountability- Establishes a single point of responsibility for human rights protection.

    Removes confusion and brings Clarity of Jurisdiction

    Intersectional Approach- Enables holistic handling of overlapping vulnerabilities like caste, gender, and religion.

    Global Best Practice- Mirrors models in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand with unified human rights bodies.

    Data Integration- Allows centralized data collection and analysis for evidence-based policymaking.

    Policy Coherence- Facilitates unified engagement with ministries and state bodies for coordinated action.

    Arguments Against

    Specialization Loss- Dilutes expertise of domain-specific bodies like NCW, NCSC, and NCPCR.

    Constitutional Violation- Conflicts with Articles 338, 338A, and 338B granting separate constitutional status.

    Administrative Overload- A single mega body may become slow, inefficient, and unresponsive.

    Representation Loss- Marginalized groups lose dedicated institutional voices for advocacy.

    Risk of Bureaucratization of commission

    Symbolic Dilution- Weakens the government’s visible commitment to vulnerable sections.

    Better Coordination Alternative- Inter-commission coordination can address overlaps without structural merger.

    Way Forward

    Create an Inter-Commission Coordination Council chaired by NHRC to avoid overlaps.

    Establish a common digital platform for complaints, investigations, and monitoring.

    Joint Investigations and Reports in intersectional cases (e.g., caste + gender).

    Amend relevant Acts to clearly demarcate jurisdiction.

    Simplify public interface through a single online grievance portal linked to all commissions.

    The 3R approach of Reform, Reorientation and Restructuring can enhance functioning of commissions as an effective Bulwark Of Democracy in India.

  • How far do you agree with the view that the focus on lack of availability of food as the main cause of hunger takes the attention away from ineffective human development policies in India?

    Despite being the largest foodgrain producer (73 million tonnes of buffer stock) and running the world’s largest food security programs (NFSA), India ranks 102nd out of 123 countries in the Global Hunger Index 2025.

    Focus on Lack of Availability of Food

    NFSA, 2013: 5 kg subsidized food grains/month to 67% of India’s population.

    PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana: Extended free food grain distribution during and post-COVID.

    ICDS and Mid-Day Meal Scheme: Supply meals to pregnant women, lactating mothers, and children to combat calorie deficiency.

    Persistent Malnutrition: NFHS-5 shows stunting (32.9%), wasting (18.7%), and underweight (32%) children despite extensive food programs.

    High Anemia Levels: 57% of women and 67% of children are anemic – a form of hidden hunger linked to poor micronutrient intake, not lack of food.

    SOFI 2025: 12% of Indians remain undernourished despite record food production.

    Global Hunger Index 2025: score of 25.8 (Serious).

    Ineffective Human Development Policies in India

    Health System Deficiencies: Poor healthcare access, high maternal mortality, inadequate disease prevention, and sanitation deficits worsen malnutrition.

    Education Gaps: Lack of nutrition awareness, hygiene education, and poor child care practices perpetuate undernutrition despite food access.

    Feminization of poverty: Low female labor participation, limited autonomy, and poor maternal nutrition cause intergenerational hunger.

    A large share of the workforce (90%) remains in low-paid informal jobs, restricting food affordability and living standards.

    Limited Funding – Public spending on health (~1.9% of GDP) and education (~2.9% of GDP) remains below global averages, weakening capability-building.

    Income Poverty and Inequality: The poorest 10% spend over 60% of income on food, leaving little for health or education.

    Jobless Growth: Despite 7%+ GDP growth, unemployment among youth remains 17.3% (PLFS 2022-23).

    Steps Taken to Address the Broader Dimensions of Hunger

    Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0: Modernizes ICDS infrastructure and promotes dietary diversity through fortified foods.

    Ayushman Bharat and PM Jan Arogya Yojana: insurance coverage to 50Cr population

    Swachh Bharat Mission & Jal Jeevan Mission: Improve sanitation and safe water, reducing nutrient loss due to infections.

    MGNREGA, NRLM, and PM-KISAN: Provide livelihood and income support to improve household food affordability.

    Women Empowerment Initiatives: Mobilizing over 1 crore women into 9.96 lakh Self-Help Groups (SHGs) under NULM

    Millets Promotion under “Shree Anna” – Integration of nutri-cereals (e.g. ragi, bajra, jowar) into PDS, ICDS and PM POSHAN

    Way Forward

    Promote diet diversity (millets, pulses, vegetables) through PDS reform.

    Increase public investment in health (2.5%) and education (6%) to strengthen human capital.

    Adopt data-driven local interventions under Aspirational Districts Programme to target high-burden regions.

    Adopt Brazil’s Bolsa Família conditional cash transfer scheme

    Scale State level best practices like TN’s inclusion of Eggs in MDM

    India’s vision of ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas’ demands inclusive nutrition as the foundation for sustainable human development.

  • Whether the Supreme Court Judgement (July 2018) can settle the political tussle between the Lt. Governor and elected government of Delhi? Examine.

    The governance of Delhi has remained contentious due to its special constitutional status under Article 239AA. The Supreme Court’s July 2018 Constitution Bench judgment in Government of NCT of Delhi v. Union of India sought to clarify the powers of the Lt. Governor (LG) vis-à-vis the elected government.

    Key Features of the 2018 Judgment

    Aid and Advice– LG is bound by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, except in matters of land, police, and public order.

    No Independent Power– LG cannot act independently; he is not an obstructionist authority.

    In case of conflict, LG should refer matter to President.

    SC concluded (following Balakrishnan Committee) that Delhi is not a state.

    Can the 2018 SC Judgment Settle the Tussle?

    Yes – Scope for Settlement

    Judicial clarity – LG bound by aid and advice except land, police, public order.

    Strengthens democracy – Elected govt. empowered.

    Curtails obstruction – LG cannot act independently or stall routine decisions.

    Constitutional morality – Promotes cooperative federalism, mutual trust.

    Checks arbitrariness – Limits misuse of “difference of opinion” clause.

    Encourages dialogue – Pushes for institutional maturity and coordination.

    No – Tussle Likely to Persist

    Ambiguity remains – Article 239AA(4) still allows LG to escalate disputes.

    Key exclusions – Land, police, public order under Centre control.

    Services issue – Left unresolved in 2018, led to fresh disputes till 2023.

    Party rivalry – Conflict driven by politics, not just legal text.

    Structural limits – Delhi lacks full statehood, unlike other states.

    Comparative experience – Capitals like Washington D.C. also face similar tussles.

    Way Forward

    Legislative clarity on Article 239AA to reduce ambiguity.

    Institutionalised cooperative mechanisms such as inter-governmental councils for Delhi.

    Judicial restraint and constitutional morality from all actors.

    Political maturity to balance Union concerns with the democratic mandate of Delhi’s citizens.

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” Both Union & States are creatures of the Constitution

  • A number of outside powers have entrenched themselves in Central Asia, which is a zone of interest to India. Discuss the implications, in this context, of India’s joining the Ashgabat Agreement, 2018.

    The region of Central Asia is located in the heart of Eurasia and denoted as Heartland by Helford Mackinder. It connects Europe, West Asia, South Asia, and Russia, and holds vast reserves of energy and minerals.

    Outside Powers Entrenched in Central Asia

    China- Through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and China-Central Asia-West Asia Corridor

    Russia through Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU).

    United States- involvement in Afghanistan

    India – through Bilateral relations and SCO. Eg- PM visited all 5 CA Republics

    Central Asia as a Zone of Interest to India

    Geopolitical – Area of Great Game.

    Energy Security- Central Asia possesses abundant oil, gas, and uranium reserves vital for India’s growing energy needs (e.g., TAPI gas pipeline).

    Connectivity and Trade- Provides a gateway to Eurasia and Europe, helping India bypass Pakistan. Eg- INSTC

    Strategic Balancing- counter China’s strategic dominance

    Cultural-Historical Linkages- Shared Silk Road heritage, Buddhism, and Sufi culture

    The Ashgabat Agreement is a multilateral transport and transit pact aimed at creating an International Transport and Transit Corridor (ITTC) between Central Asia and the Persian Gulf.

    Positive Implications of India’s Joining

    Enhanced Connectivity via the Persian Gulf and Iran’s Chabahar Port, complementing the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).

    Energy and Economic Integration- Opens efficient trade routes for energy imports, minerals, and agricultural goods.

    Reduces India’s dependence on traditional routes blocked by Pakistan; provides alternative trade corridors aligned with its “Connect Central Asia Policy.”

    Balancing China’s BRI and enhancing India’s geo-economic presence.

    Regional Cooperation- Deepens engagement with Iran, Oman, and Central Asian republics.

    Challenges

    Geopolitical Constraints- US sanctions on Iran threaten India’s ability to operationalize corridors through Chabahar and Iran-Turkmenistan routes.

    Security Instability- Afghanistan’s volatility disrupts regional connectivity and supply chains.

    China’s deep pocket diplomacy limits India’s economic space and bargaining power.

    India’s delivery Deficit – Eg- Delay in INSTC

    Compared to Russia and China, India’s economic and physical presence remains limited

    Agreement reinforces India’s “Connect Central Asia” and “Act West” policies.

  • How far do you agree with the view that tribunals curtail the jurisdiction of ordinary courts? In view of the above, discuss the constitutional validity and competency of the tribunals in India.

    Tribunals are quasi-judicial bodies established to deliver specialized, speedy, and cost-effective justice in specific matters like taxation, service disputes, environment etc.

    Objectives of Tribunals

    Specialized Adjudication

    Speedy Justice Delivery

    Reduce Burden on Courts

    Cost-Effective Dispute Resolution

    Simplified Procedures – Principles of Natural Justice

    Decentralized Justice Access

    Efficient Enforcement of Rights – Eg- NGT

    Tribunals Curtailing the Jurisdiction of Ordinary Courts

    Exclusion of High Court Jurisdiction – Articles 323A & 323B permit exclusion of High Courts’ writ powers in tribunal matters.

    Executive Control over Appointments of tribunal members

    Creates Parallel Judicial System

    However, in L. Chandra Kumar (1997) Case, SC struck down exclusion of High Court jurisdiction as unconstitutional, reaffirming judicial review as part of basic structure.

    Constitutional Validity of Tribunals

    Constitutional Basis – Established under Articles 323A & 323B (42nd Amendment, 1976) for specialized adjudication.

    Legislative Competence – Parliament empowered to create tribunals for administrative and quasi-judicial functions under Entry 11A, Concurrent List.

    Judicial Endorsement – L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India (1997)- Upheld constitutional validity of tribunals.

    Tribunals Reforms Act, 2021 – Reorganized and rationalized tribunals.

    Functional Validity – Tribunals are supplementary judicial mechanisms, constitutionally valid as long as they do not replace or restrict High Court or Supreme Court powers.

    Competency of Tribunals in India

    Limited Jurisdiction – Competency confined to specific subject matters. Eg- NGT on environment.

    Quasi-Judicial Powers – Empowered to summon witnesses, take evidence, and deliver binding decisions similar to civil courts.

    No Inherent Jurisdiction – Unlike High Courts, tribunals cannot exercise writ or contempt powers unless conferred by statute.

    Subject to Judicial Review – Decisions are reviewable by High Courts. (L. Chandra Kumar, 1997).

    Appellate and Supervisory Role – Certain tribunals (e.g., NCLAT, DRAT) exercise appellate functions over subordinate tribunals or authorities.

    Administrative Control – Function under ministries (NCLT under Corporate Affairs).

    Guided by Principles of Natural Justice – Must ensure fair hearing, reasoned orders, and impartial adjudication in all proceedings.

    Tribunals, in line with Article 39A, must enhance access to justice while upholding judicial independence and judicial review as constitutional safeguards.