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GS Paper: GS2

  • India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss.

    India and Israel relations, though formally established only in 1992, have evolved from a transactional defense relationship into a multidimensional strategic partnership.

    Depth and Diversity in India-Israel relations

    Geopolitical Convergence

    2017 Modi visit to Israel (first ever by an Indian PM) and reciprocal visits institutionalized the partnership through Joint Working Groups and 2+2 dialogues.

    Strategic autonomy- India has successfully balanced ties with Israel, Palestine, and Gulf states

    Indo-Abrahamic Bloc- India’s participation in I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE, US), reflect shared Indo-Pacific interests.

    Defense and Security Cooperation

    Defense Procurement- Israel is one of India’s top three defense suppliers. Eg- Heron and Searcher UAVs, Barak missiles, and Spyder air defense systems.

    Counterterrorism Cooperation- Intelligence-sharing and joint training have strengthened India’s counterterrorism capabilities post-26/11.

    Maritime Security- Joint initiatives in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea strengthen India’s position in West Asian maritime architecture.

    Technology, Agriculture, and Water Cooperation

    The India-Israel Agricultural Project (IIAP) has established over 30 Centers of Excellence across Indian states.

    Water Management- Collaboration in drip irrigation, desalination, and wastewater recycling.

    The India-Israel Industrial R&D and Technological Innovation Fund (I4F) supports joint projects in AI, quantum computing, water tech, etc.

    Economic and Trade Relations

    Bilateral Trade- Increased from $200 million in 1992 to over $10.7 billion in 2023, with focus shifting from diamonds to pharmaceuticals, defense electronics, and agri-tech.

    Negotiations for a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) to deepen commercial linkages.

    India and Israel have signed a fresh bilateral investment treaty.( first OECD country to adopt India’s new investment treaty model.)

    People-to-People and Cultural Ties – Shared democratic values, historical goodwill, and academic and cultural exchanges

    Major Areas-of Friction

    India maintains a principled support for Palestine and the two-state solution. Eg- India abstained from a UNGA resolution on Gaza ceasefire in October 2023.

    India walk a tightrope between its strategic embrace of Israel and economic entrenchment in the Gulf. – Harsh V. Pant (ORF)

    Non-defense trade remains modest and over-reliant on diamonds and agriculture.

    The India-Israel Free Trade Agreement, under negotiation since 2010 (14 rounds held), remains inconclusive.

    Domestic Political Issues – left-leaning and minority groups, criticize deepening ties with Israel.

    Way Forward

    Partnership based on Enlightened Self interest

    Joint Collaboration for development projects in Africa and South Asia under platforms like I2U2.

    As Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu stated, “The sky is the limit for India-Israel cooperation” – symbolizing deep mutual trust and strategic alignment.

  • E-Governance is not only about utilization of the power of new technology, but also much about critical importance of the ‘use value’ of information Explain.

    The World Bank defines e-governance as the use by government agencies of information technologies that can transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government.

    E-Governance as Utilization of the Power of New Technology

    Digital Platforms like e-Office, UMANG, DigiLocker, CPGRAMS, and GeM.

    Automation and Paperless Processes: Eg- e-Procurement, e-Courts.

    Connectivity and Infrastructure Expansion: Eg- Digital India, BharatNet, and 5G rollout.

    Data Integration and Interoperability: Eg- Unified databases such as Aadhaar and SECC.

    Smart Technologies and AI Use: Eg- IndiaAI Mission, Smart Cities.

    Citizen-Government Interface: Eg- Mobile governance and MyGov platform.

    Importance of the ‘Use Value’ of Information

    Use Value – The relevance, accessibility, and usability of information by citizens, administrators, and policymakers to make informed decisions and ensure accountability.

    Informed Decision-Making: Data-driven policies depend on real-time, accurate information. Eg- Aadhaar-linked welfare, PM-KISAN, JAM Trinity

    Platforms like RTI Portal, NJDG, and CPGRAMS ensure information availability, empowering citizens to hold government accountable.

    Targeted Service Delivery: Use of information helps identify beneficiaries and prevent inclusion exclusion errors. Eg- SECC data.

    Citizen Empowerment: Information accessibility through UMANG, DigiLocker, and MyGov enables citizens to interact directly with the state.

    Evidence-Based Governance- Dashboards like PRAGATI and Aspirational District Programme use information analytics for performance monitoring.

    Crisis Management and Responsiveness: During COVID-19, platforms like CoWIN and Aarogya Setu turned data into real-time governance tools for vaccine delivery and tracking.

    Reduction in Asymmetry and Corruption: Public disclosure reduces discretion and builds public trust. Eg- GeM portal, PFMS

    Technology enables e-governance; the use value of information sustains it.

  • In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India?

    In Abhiram Singh vs UoI, SC has held that elections are the biggest secular and democratic event. EVMs were introduced to improve transparency and efficiency of the electoral process.

    Challenges before the Election Commission of India (ECI)

    Technical and Operational Challenges

    Allegations of EVM tampering and demand for Postal Ballot system.

    EVMs are produced by PSU’s BEL and ECIL– concerns about source code security and potential government misuse.

    Large-scale deployment increases risk of technical failure, power supply issues, and storage vulnerability.

    Institutional and Procedural Challenges

    Political polarisation has led to accusations of bias against ECI decisions (timing of elections, model code enforcement).

    Lack of transparency- Limited access for political parties and civil society to audit or inspect EVM functioning.

    Opposition parties demand 100% VVPAT verification or return to ballot papers, which the ECI has resisted citing impracticality.

    Legal and Regulatory Challenges

    Use of EVMs is governed by Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961, not by a specific EVM legislation.

    Judicial scrutiny and legal disputes- Repeated petitions challenge credibility of EVMs and VVPAT counting procedures.

    Despite SC directives (2024) to improve VVPAT counting transparency and preserve paper trail records – compliance remains partial.

    Public Perception and Political Trust Deficit

    Decline in citizen confidence- Lack of understanding of EVM functioning leads to misinformation and conspiracy theories.

    Political blame culture- Losing parties often question EVM integrity, politicising the institution’s credibility.

    Social media misinformation- Viral false claims about EVM manipulation erode voter trust. Eg- “Black Box” Allegations (2024)

    ECI’s Stand

    EVMs are standalone, non-networked machines; cannot be hacked remotely.

    Rigorous mock polling, sealing, randomisation, and observer monitoring prevent manipulation.

    Technical Expert Committee (TEC) from IITs and DRDO regularly reviews EVM integrity.

    Way Forward

    Conduct independent third-party audits (IITs, NIC) of EVM software and random samples.

    VVPAT Verification – Increase sample size or audit entire constituency in disputed cases.

    Launch voter education campaigns explaining EVM and VVPAT mechanisms

    Enact a dedicated “Electronic Voting Regulation Act” ensuring independent oversight

    Free and fair elections are the cornerstone of democracy (Art. 324). Enhancing the transparency in use of EVM’s is thus essential.

  • Whether National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) can enforce the implementation of constitutional reservation for the Scheduled Castes in the religious minority institutions? Examine.

    The NCSC, established under Article 338, is a constitutional body mandated to safeguard the interests and rights of Scheduled Castes (SCs).

    Constitutional and Legal Position on reservation for the SC in the religious minority institutions

    Article 15(4) & 16(4)- Empower the State to make special provisions for socially and educationally backward classes, including SCs.

    Article 30(1)- Grants minority communities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

    Article 338(5)- Authorizes NCSC to investigate, monitor, and report on safeguards provided for SCs.

    Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950- Restricts SC status to Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists, excluding Muslims and Christians.

    Key Judicial Pronouncements

    T.M.A. Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka (2002)- Minority institutions have the right to autonomy in administration under Article 30, though subject to reasonable regulation.

    P.A. Inamdar v. State of Maharashtra (2005)- State cannot impose reservation policy on unaided minority institutions.

    Analysis

    The NCSC can recommend or monitor steps for reservation in institutions, but it cannot enforce such provisions in minority institutions, as-

    Article 30(1) guarantees minorities autonomy in managing their educational institutions.

    Judicial precedents protect minority institutions from mandatory reservation.

    NCSC’s powers are recommendatory, not binding.

    Furthermore, since Scheduled Castes of minority religions (Muslims and Christians) are not constitutionally recognized as SCs, NCSC has no jurisdiction over them.

    The matter instead falls under the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) or policy domain of the Parliament, not NCSC’s enforcement powers.

    Any change in this framework requires constitutional amendment and judicial validation to balance SC Rights with Articles 29-30 protections.

  • Under what circumstances can the Financial Emergency be proclaimed by the President of India? What consequences follow when such a declaration remains in force?

    The framers of the Indian Constitution, drawing from the experience of political and economic instability during colonial times, provided for Financial Emergency under Article 360.

    Circumstances for Proclamation

    The President may proclaim a Financial Emergency if he is satisfied that the financial stability or credit of India, or any part thereof, is threatened.

    Such a proclamation must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within 2 months (30 days if Lok Sabha is dissolved).

    Once approved, it remains in force until revoked by the President; no maximum time limit is prescribed.

    Consequences of Financial Emergency

    Union Control over State Finances – The Union can direct States to follow financial discipline and reduce expenditure.

    Reservation of Money Bills – All State Money Bills must be reserved for the President’s approval.

    Reduction of Salaries – The President may direct reduction in salaries and allowances of persons serving the Union or State, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.

    Executive Directions – Union may issue binding directions to States regarding financial propriety.

    Centralisation of Fiscal Powers – Parliament acquires a dominant role in fiscal management, subordinating State autonomy.

    Though never invoked in India, the provision of Financial Emergency underscores the precautionary design of the Constitution.

  • Why do you think the committees are considered to be useful for parliamentary work? Discuss, in this context, the role or the Estimates Committee.

    According to LS speaker Om Birla, Parliamentary Committees are the “backbone of parliamentary democracy.

    Parliamentary committees

    Standing Committees – PAC, Estimate committee, Committee on public undertaking

    Ad-Hoc Committees – Eg- JPC

    Importance of Parliamentary Committees

    Checks and Balances – Eg- PAC examined CAG’s 2G spectrum report for irregularities.

    In-Depth Policy Analysis – Enable clause-by-clause scrutiny of Bills, which is not possible in open House debates. Eg- JPC on Data Protection Bill (2019) proposed over 90 amendments

    Reducing Legislative Workload – Committees share Parliament’s burden, ensuring thorough scrutiny without delaying legislation.

    Expert Consultation – Committees invite experts, industry, and civil society to promote evidence-based policymaking.

    Budgetary Oversight – Departmentally Related Standing Committees (DRSCs) analyse ministry budgets to ensure fiscal prudence.

    Consensus Building – Committees promote bipartisan dialogue, e.g., IT Committee built consensus on the Personal Data Protection Bill (2019).

    Public Engagement – Committees seek public and expert inputs, e.g., Standing Committee on Environment reviewed the EIA Draft Notification (2020).

    Continuity in Oversight – Committees function year-round, ensuring continuous policy review beyond parliamentary sessions.

    Bridging Knowledge Gaps – Committees enhance MPs’ expertise through research support and technical briefings.

    Role of the Estimates Committee

    Established under Rule 310 of the Lok Sabha, it has 30 Lok Sabha members and is chaired by a ruling party MP.

    Examines budget estimates to ensure efficiency, economy, and effectiveness.

    Suggests alternative policies for better fiscal management and administrative reform.

    Monitors implementation of government schemes and performance of ministries.

    Eg- Under Murli Manohar Joshi (2018), it reviewed PSU disinvestment and defence procurement, highlighting fiscal prudence.

    In the words of Woodrow Wilson, “Congress in session is Congress on public exhibition, while Congress in its committee rooms is Congress at work.”

  • Performance of welfare schemes that are implemented for vulnerable sections is not so effective due to absence of their awareness and active involvement at all stages of policy process – Discuss.

    The Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 41), envisions a welfare state that ensures social justice and empowerment of vulnerable sections. However, their impact is limited due to design and implementation gaps.

    Absence of awareness and active involvement

    Policy Making

    Poor Representation in Design – Lack of beneficiary consultation leads to top-down, one-size-fits-all schemes. Eg- uniform guidelines under PMAY

    Absence of local participation results in policies ignoring grassroots realities.

    Misallocation of Priorities- Without local input, funds get diverted to non-core activities. Eg- Beti Bachao Beti Padhao spent 80% of funds on publicity

    Political populism and short termism rather than long term capability building approach. Eg- Farm Loan Waiver

    Policy Implementation

    Limited Awareness of Rights and Entitlements – Eg- MGNREGA workers rarely claim unemployment allowance due to ignorance of provisions.

    Poor Coordination – Absence of SHGs, PRIs, and NGOs in execution leads to leakages and inefficiency. Eg- leakages in PDS

    Digital and Social Exclusion – Digital illiteracy limits registration and access.

    Policy Monitoring

    Weak Social Accountability Mechanisms – Eg- Social audits under MGNREGA are irregular in several states.

    Absence of Community Oversight- Eg- NFSA grievance redressal committees underperform due to lack of public participation.

    Crisis Management

    In disasters, schemes fail to respond effectively due to missing local coordination. Eg- Migrant crisis during COVID-19 lockdown

    Weak Role of Civil Society in Emergency Delivery- Limited engagement with NGOs reduces last-mile efficiency.

    However, there are few success stories

    Mid-Day Meal (POSHAN) -Reduced hunger and educational deprivation.

    Direct Benefit Transfer saved 3.48 lakh crore of government.

    Social Audit of MGNREGA – Andhra Pradesh Model

    Participatory Democracy – Peoples Plan Campaign of Kerala

    Way Forward

    Institutionalising Social Audit and Citizen Charters with legal backing

    Strengthening Grassroot democracy through effective devolution and principle of subsidiarity

    Bottom-up Planning – Porto Alegre Brazil Model

    Inclusive Development- Involve SHGs, and CSOs in design, execution, and feedback.

    Ensuring “people-centric governance” through information, inclusion, and participation aligns with the vision of “Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Vishwas”

  • “What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions” Explain with suitable examples.

    Former US president Barack Obama called India-US relationship as the most defining partnership of the 21st century. However, in recent years there has been friction in ties due to geopolitical and geoeconomic divergence.

    Roots of Friction- Divergent Strategic Worldviews

    India’s Pursuit of Strategic Autonomy vs US Alliance Model – India’s “strategic hedging” with neutral stance on the Russia-Ukraine war (2022-24) frustrated the US. Eg- 50% Tariff

    USA’s relationship with Pakistan (recent mineral deal) weakens India’s efforts against Terrorism.

    Fear of USA’s policy of Bait and Bloodletting in India-China relations

    Gap between expectation and recognition – Eg- While the US promotes India as a “pillar of the Indo-Pacific strategy,” it doesn’t offer India the same status as treaty allies like Japan or Australia

    Divergence in Regional Priorities – India’s immediate concerns include China, Pakistan, and the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), whereas US priorities Pacific Ocean in QUAD.

    Geoeconomic Issues – US tightening H-1B visa policies or reinstate Generalized System of Preferences (GSP).

    U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan (2021) and its aftermath posed regional security concerns for India

    Multilateralism issues – Eg- Disputes on data localization, intellectual property, and agricultural access under WTO

    US sanctions under CAATSA threatened S-400 missile system deal and Chabahar port in Iran

    Human Rights – US criticism of India’s domestic policies (e.g., on religious freedom, digital regulation, or Kashmir) is viewed by India as interference in internal affairs.

    India’s National Self-Esteem and Strategic Ambitions

    Strategic Autonomy and issue based partnerships based on enlightened self interest

    Recognition as an independent global power – Rightful Place in comity of nations.

    Permanent membership in the UN Security Council.

    Technology access and defense co-production as an equal partner.

    Leadership in Global South diplomacy.

    Efforts to Bridge the Gap

    India-US civil nuclear deal of 2008

    Initiatives on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET) aim for joint R&D in AI, 5G, and quantum tech.

    GE-HAL jet engine co-production, semiconductor MoUs, and defense logistics agreements (LEMOA, COMCASA, BECA).

    Framework agreement to expand defence cooperation over the next 10-years.

    Way Forward

    Balance Strategic Autonomy with Global Cooperation on shared interests – counterterrorism, climate change, and technology governance.

    Engage more actively in the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF), promote supply chain resilience, and sustainable infrastructure partnerships.

    Prioritize co-production and joint R&D in advanced defense technologies such as cybersecurity, autonomous systems, and surveillance.

    A stronger India-US partnership anchored in mutual respect, collaboration, and global leadership can advance regional stability and multipolar global governance

  • “The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.

    The international system is shifting from the ‘unipolar’ and Western-led liberal order to a more ‘hybrid’, decentralised and polycentric system (‘multi-polar’ world order). In this context, India’s role has also transformed as an emerging global power.

    India’s Earlier Role as a Voice of the Marginalised

    The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) promoted strategic autonomy and South-South solidarity against superpower blocs.

    Economic Advocacy- At UNCTAD and G77, India pushed for a New International Economic Order (NIEO) to reform global trade and finance.

    Decolonisation- Eg- opposition to apartheid in South Africa

    Disarmament Diplomacy- Advocated global nuclear disarmament.

    WTO Diplomacy – Advocacy for Doha Agenda

    Shift in India’s Global Posture – Rise of Realpolitik

    Economic Liberalisation (1991)- Shift from Third World solidarity to global integration. Eg- recent FTA with UK

    Shift from Non-Alignment to Multi Alignment – Strategic Partnerships with US, Japan, France, and Israel based on Enlightened self interest.

    Membership in Quad, SCO, BRICS, and G20, signal pragmatic engagement beyond ideological blocs.

    Nuclear Tests (1998)- Assertion of national power replaced earlier moral idealism.

    Energy & Security Diplomacy- India’s West Asia, I2U2, and Indo-Pacific strategies reflect a realist pursuit of interests.

    Reduced Role in NAM– Eg- PM Modi skipping NAM Summit

    India’s Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific strategy align with global power equations and economic interests.

    Strategic Balancing- Maintaining relations with US (Quad), Russia (defence), and China (BRICS/SCO) reflects sophisticated multi-vector diplomacy.

    However, India Still Asserts Its Ethical Stance and Voice of the Global South

    South-South Cooperation- India extends Lines of Credit, ITEC training, and humanitarian aid to 160+ nations.

    Humanitarian diplomacy under Vaccine Maitri (2021)- Supplied vaccines to over 90 countries.

    Voice of Global South Summit (2023)- representing Global South concerns on debt, food, and digital inclusion.

    Climate Justice Advocacy- India’s stand for common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR).

    Digital Public Goods Diplomacy- Eg- promotion of India Stack and UPI models in Africa.

    Ethical Multilateralism- Eg- call for UNSC reform and rule-based global order, rooted in the civilisational ethos of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (“One Earth, One Family, One Future”).

    The world order today is in ‘flux’ (M. K. Narayanan). Issue based partnerships rather than alliances is the order of the day (S. Jaishankar)

  • The need for cooperation among various service sector has been an inherent component of development discourse. Partnership bridges bring the gap among the sectors. It also sets in motion a culture of ‘Collaboration’ and ‘team spirit’. In the light of statements above examine India’s Development process.

    The Indian Constitution envisions a Welfare State under the DPSP (Articles 36-51), mandating the State to ensure social, economic, and political justice through equitable development.

    Need for Cooperation Among Service Sectors

    Complex Interdependence – Development issues are multi-dimensional.

    Integrated Development Approach

    Inter-sectoral Coordination

    Efficiency and Resource Optimization

    Innovation and Knowledge Sharing

    Inclusive Governance and development through participation

    Accountability and Transparency

    India’s Development Process through Collaborative Partnerships

    Government-Private Sector Partnership (PPP) – Eg- Smart Cities Mission, Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission

    Inter-Governmental Collaboration – Eg- NITI Aayog’s Governing Council, PM Gati Shakti Master Plan

    Government-Civil Society Partnership – Eg- SEWA and PRADAN partner with government programmes for women’s empowerment and livelihoods.

    Public-Private-Community Partnerships (PPCP) – Eg- Swachh Bharat Mission combines government funding, corporate CSR, and community action.

    Technology and Data Collaborations – Eg- UPI integrate government, fintech, and private service sectors.

    Achievements

    Economic – Fastest growing Economy

    Infrastructure Efficiency through PPPs

    PPP projects worth under implementation (DEA, 2024).

    NH construction speed increased from 12 km/day (2014) to 37 km/day (2023).

    Financial Inclusion via Digital Collaboration

    UPI transactions exceeded ; serves 491 million individuals and 65 million merchants.

    JAM trinity enabled by eliminating subsidy leakages (BlueKraft, 2024).

    Water and Sanitation Progress through Multi-Stakeholder Models

    Jal Jeevan Mission: 15 crore households connected to tap water (2025).

    Swachh Bharat Mission: Rural open defecation reduced from 55% (2014) to near zero (2020).

    Decentralized Development through Cooperative Federalism

    15th Finance Commission devolved directly to PRIs and ULBs for local service delivery.

    Aspirational Districts Programme: 95% districts show improvement in health & education indicators (NITI Aayog, 2023).

    Self-Help Group (SHG) movement: 9.3 crore women linked to banks under DAY-NRLM, with credit linkage of (2024).

    Limitations

    Institutional Fragmentation – Overlapping jurisdictions and poor coordination between Centre, State, and local bodies. Eg- Delays in PM Awas Yojana (Urban)

    Capacity Deficit at Local Levels – lack of 3F’s

    Incomplete or outdated local datasets hinder data-driven decision-making.

    Weak Accountability – Eg- Inadequate social audit mechanisms

    Digital Divide – Eg- NFHS-5 (2021) showed only 43% of rural households have internet access, affecting e-governance uptake.

    Trust Deficit between Stakeholders – Eg- CSO perceived as anti-development or foreign influenced.

    Funding and Regulatory Constraints: Tightened FCRA norms and compliance burdens for NGOs.

    Way Forward for Collaborative Partnerships

    Adopt Best Practices

    Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign

    Participatory Budgeting in porto alegre brazil

    Institutional Convergence and Coordination – Eg- Expand PM Gati Shakti model to social sectors like health and education.

    Capacity Building through Digital Governance – Eg- Kerala’s Information Kerala Mission digitized local governance workflows.

    Decentralized Governance based on principle of subsidiarity.

    Data Integration through NDAP, GIS platforms, and PRAGATI dashboards for evidence-based decisions.

    A coordinated, transparent, and participatory relations between various service sectors can truly make development inclusive, sustainable and rapid.