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  • Rare Black Panther spotted in Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary

    A rare Black Panther was spotted in the Netravali WLS in South Goa.

    There are many WLS and National Park in the tiny state of Goa. Unlike others, they rarely find any mention in news. Here a quick revision for you.

    Make sure to locate them on map.

    • Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary,

    • Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary,

    • Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary,

    • Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary,

    • Mhadei Wildlife Sanctuary,

    • Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary,

    • Anshi National Park.

    Black Panther

    • Black Panther or Black Leopard is a color variant of spotted Indian leopards, reported from densely forested areas of south India, mostly from the state of Karnataka.
    • A black panther is the melanistic colour variant of any Panthera, particularly of the leopard (P. pardus) in Asia and Africa, and the jaguar (P. onca) in the Americas.
    • They are also known as the ghost of the forest.

    About Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary

    • Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary is located in South-Eastern Goa, India.
    • It constitutes one of the vital corridors of the Western Ghats and covers an area of about 211 sq.km.
    • Netravali or Neturli is an important tributary of River Zuari, which originates in the sanctuary.
    • Forests mostly consist of moist deciduous vegetation interspersed with evergreen and semi-evergreen habitat; there are also two all-season waterfalls in the sanctuary.
    • The Gaur or Indian Bison, Malabar giant squirrel, four-horned antelope or chousingha, leopard, black sloth bear along with a host of other predators and herbivores find home in the sanctuary.

  • [pib] Kailash – Mansarovar Yatra Route from Dharchula to Lipulekh

    The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has completed the construction of road from Dharchula to Lipulekh along the China Border, famously known as Kailash-Mansarovar Yatra Route.

    We can expect a prelims question asking to arrange few passes from West to East or vice versa. Click here to get through all such Himalayan Passes.

    Darchula – Lipulekh road

    • The road is an extension of Pithoragarh-Tawaghat-Ghatiabagarh road. In this 80 Km road, the altitude rises from 6000 feet to 17,060 feet.
    • It originates from Ghatiabagarh in Uttarakhand and terminates at Lipulekh Pass, the gateway to Kailash Mansarovar.
    • With the completion of this project, the arduous trek through treacherous high-altitude terrain can now be avoided by the Pilgrims of Kailash Mansarovar Yatra and the period of journey will be reduced by many days.

    (Note: The Lipulekh Pass links Uttarakhand with China’s Tibetan Autonomous Region.)

    Significance

    • At present, the travel to Kailash Mansarovar takes around two to three weeks through Sikkim or Nepal routes.
    • Lipulekh route had a trek of 90 Km through high altitude terrain and the elderly yartris faced lot of difficulties.
    • Now, this yatra will get completed by vehicles.

    Also read:

    The Northern and Northeastern Mountains | Part 2

    Back2Basics: Border Roads Organisation (BRO)

    • The BRO develops and maintains road networks in India’s border areas and friendly neighboring countries and functions under the Ministry of Defence.
    • It is entrusted for construction of Roads, Bridges, Tunnels, Causeways, Helipads and Airfields along the borders.
    • Officers from the Border Roads Engineering Service (BRES) and personnel from the General Reserve Engineer Force (GREF) form the parent cadre of the Border Roads Organisation.
    • It is also staffed by officers and troops drawn from the Indian Army’s Corps of Engineers on extra regimental employment.
    • The BRO operates and maintains over 32,885 kilometers of roads and about 12,200 meters of permanent bridges in the country.

  • [Burning Issue] Key takeaways from the report on National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP)

    As India embarks on its journey of 5 trillion Economy, the importance of Infrastructure cannot be undermined. PM Modi in his Independence Day speech 2019 had highlighted this aspect by allocating ₹100 lakh crore for infrastructure projects over the next 5 years.

    The latest move- ‘National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP)’. NIP will help to augment infrastructure and create jobs in the country. The government task force on NIP in its report has projected total investment of Rs 111 lakh crore in infra projects over 5 years.

    The emphasis would be on ease of living: safe drinking water, access to clean and affordable energy, healthcare for all, modern railway stations, airports, bus terminals and world-class educational institutes.

     

    What is the National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP)?

    • NIP includes economic and social infrastructure projects.
    • During the fiscal years, 2020 to 2025, sectors such as Energy (24%), Roads (19%), Urban (16%), and Railways (13%) will amount to around 70% of the projected capital expenditure in infrastructure in India.
    • It has outlined plans to invest more than ₹102 lakh crore on infrastructure projects by 2024-25, with the Centre, States and the private sector to share the capital expenditure in a 39:39:22 formula.

    Why the infra sector is given more emphasis these days?

    • Slowdown due to the pandemic is a good time to catch up on infrastructure capacity and increase the expenditure.
    • Infrastructure spending is a critical component of the fiscal stimulus as it has multiplier effects on the economy and job creation.
    • Quality infrastructure is important not only for faster economic growth but also to ensure inclusive growth.
    • Lack of adequate infrastructure not only holds a lack of economic development, but it also causes additional costs in terms of time, effort and money of the people for accessing essential social services.

    Key benefits of NIP

    • Economic: Well-planned NIP will enable more infra projects, grow businesses, create jobs, improve ease of living, and provide equitable access to infrastructure for all, making growth more inclusive.
    • Government: Well-developed infrastructure enhances the level of economic activity, creates additional fiscal space by improving the revenue base of the government, and ensures the quality of expenditure focused on productive areas.
    • Developers: Provides a better view of project supply, provides time to be better prepared for project bidding, reduces aggressive bids/ failure in project delivery, ensures enhanced access to sources of finance as a result of increased investor confidence.
    • Banks/financial institutions (F1s)/investors: Builds investor confidence as identified projects are likely to be better prepared, exposures less likely to suffer stress given active project monitoring, thereby less likelihood of NPAs.

    Projects included

     

    • The report contains recommendations on general and sector reforms relating to key infrastructure sectors for implementation by the Centre and states.
    • Sectors such as energy (24%), roads (18%), urban (17%) and railways (12%) amount to around 71% of the projected investments.
    • The projects will also be spread across sectors such as irrigation, mobility, education, health, water and the digital sector.

    Major constraints in implementation

    The major implementation constraints that will be faced possibly in future are:

    • Availability of funds for financing large projects
    • Lengthy processes in land acquisition and payment of compensation
    • Environmental concerns
    • Time and cost overruns due to delays in project implementation and procedural
    • Delays and lesser traffic growth than expected to increase the riskiness of the projects
    • Stalled or languishing projects and a shortfall in funds for maintenance

    Highlights of the task forces’ report

    Components of Infrastructure Vision 2025

    The Taskforce has proposed certain goals, strategies and standards under its Infrastructure Vision 2025. Following are the components of the vision.

    (a) Affordable and clean energy

    • Ensuring 24×7 power availability;
    • Reduce pollution through green and clean renewable energy and environment-friendly fuel for transportation.

    (b) Digital Services

    • Providing access for all.
    • 100% population coverage for telecom and high-quality broadband services for socio-economic empowerment of every citizen;
    • Digital payments and e-governance Infrastructure for delivery of banking and public services

    (c) Quality Education:

    • World-class educational institutes for teaching and research, technology-driven learning meeting GER target of 35 by 2025 as per the draft National Education Policy, 2019.

    (d) Convenient and efficient transportation and logistics

    • Roads: Enhanced road connectivity to remotest areas and trunk connectivity through expressways, major economic corridors, strategic areas and tourist destinations. Extensive charging and on-road traction infrastructure for electric vehicles.
    • Rail: World-class stations and fully integrated rail network with inter-modal connectivity to remote regions and close to nil accidents.
    • Air: Airport and related infrastructure to enable international and regional connectivity so as to achieve passenger and cargo traffic on the vision of NCAP 2016. Air connectivity to all Tier II and most Tier III cities.
    • Ports: Port and Waterway infrastructure focused on reducing logistics time and cost for foreign and domestic trade as per the Sagarmala National Perspective Plan 2016.
    • Metro-connectivity: Urban mobility MRTS and bus connectivity within 800 metres of homes in more than 50 cities. High standards of living for citizens by providing metro connectivity in at least 25 cities.

    (e) Housing and water supply for all

    • Housing for all by 2022 PMAY negligible slum population.
    • All households to have piped water meeting national standards by 2024.
    • Wastewater recycling and treatment.

    (f) Agriculture infrastructure:

    • Increased irrigation and micro-irrigation coverage;
    • Integrated agro logistics systems from farm gate to end consumers storage, processing and packing, transportation, market and digital infrastructure for agriculture produce.

    (g) Good health and well being

    • Superior healthcare facilities, electronic health records infrastructure.
    • Superior accessible primary, secondary and tertiary healthcare infrastructure facilities across India to meet NHP 2017 goals.
    • Medical para medical education infrastructure meeting manpower needs by 2020 and CHVs by 2025 as per IPHS norms.

    Major area of focus

    • According to the report, India would need to spend $4.51 trillion on infrastructure by 2030 to become a $5 trillion economy by 2025.
    • Of the Rs 111 lakh crore, the plan suggests spending 24 per cent in the energy sector, 18 per cent in roads, 17 per cent in urban infrastructure, 12 per cent in railways, and the rest on airports, agriculture and food processing infrastructure, industrial infrastructure, among others.
    • Healthcare, clubbed with the social sector, ranks alongside ports and airports.
    • The biggest allocations go to power, roads, railways, irrigation, urban and rural infrastructure.
    • The report allocated Rs 3.93 lakh crore to social infrastructure, including higher and school education, health and family welfare, sports and tourism. That’s higher than Rs 3.56 lakh crore proposed in the interim report.

    Here are other highlights of the report:

    Financing

    • The report suggests forming a steering committee in the Department of Economic Affairs for raising financial resources for infrastructure projects
    • It recommends setting up a well-capitalized credit enhancement fund to improve the rating of projects to easy investments by institutional investors in infrastructure through capital market instruments
    • Channeling resources from the pension and insurance sector into the infrastructure bond market
    • Strengthening the municipal bond market in India
    • Developing infrastructure financing institution IIFCL as a development finance institution in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India
    • The monetisation of assets by government departments and public sector entities to reduce the debt burden and invest in asset creation

    Monitoring

    • Creation of a tool to monitor projects under development
    • A steering committee of lenders and equity investors to monitor compliances, resource mobilization and design
    • An empowered committee for clearance of large projects

    Health sector

    It suggests:

    • Scaling up India’s medical devices and diagnostic equipment manufacturing under “Make in India” initiative
    • Exploring public-private partnership in medical education
    • Use of tele-consultation which will link tertiary care institutions to district and sub-district hospitals which provide secondary care facilities

    Various issues with the report

    Issue of Finance

    • The report of the Task Force recommends diversifying financing sources, along with strengthening the existing means.
    • The report also suggested for efficient monitoring of project execution and enhancing the execution capacity of private sector participants.
    • It said that necessary steps or initiatives need to be undertaken in order to solve the challenge of stressed assets faced by banks by encouraging usage of innovative mechanisms such as loan securitization, InvITs, etc and increased participation of Infrastructure debt funds (IDFs), DFIs, among others.

    Neglecting health sector

    • While the Covid-19 pandemic has bared inadequacies in India’s healthcare, a task force preparing a fresh infrastructure spending road map has lowered allocation to the sector from what is recommended in the interim report.
    • It suggested spending of Rs 1.51 lakh crore in five years ending March 2025 on health and family welfare, according to the final report submitted on April 29.
    • That’s lower than 1.5 per cent of the overall Rs 111 lakh crore infrastructure spending target.
    • The task force’s allocations contrast with its suggestions on improving healthcare infrastructure at the time when COVID-19 is uprooting various inadequacies.

    No measure to address Economic slowdown

    • With India already grappling with an economic slowdown and job losses, COVID-19 has struck at the most inopportune time.
    • The countrywide lock down had to be neutralized with some sort of stimulus package. This is where the task force report remains silent.

    Conclusion

    • Infrastructure development is the key to economic growth and well-being of the country’s people, as it will propel economic growth, improve quality of life contribute to GDP nationally.
    • Capacity creation and expansion in important segments like roads and highways, power, railways, renewable sector, ports, airports, metros etc, is a must for delivering impressive results.
    • The current buoyancy has not just confined to urban areas but also extended to rural areas and improving the quality of life for the masses.
    • Over the period, formalization of the economy has taken place and any growth now onwards once NIP is in place will be more sustainable, rather than a boom-and-bust process.
    • Therefore, massive infrastructure development through NIP is a sure way of achieving the government’s $5 trillion economy target.
    • This is will give a boost to several sectors, create new jobs directly and indirectly, and eventually boost the commercial market, thereby propelling the country’s economic growth.

    Way Forward

    • A country’s level of human and economic development is closely related to its levels of achievement in physical and social infrastructure.
    • While physical infrastructure is an important determinant of domestic production, good social infrastructure is vital for human development as well as economic progress through better educated, better skilled, and healthier citizens.
    • Striking a balance between the two is the real challenge for any government in action.
    • Translating the government’s vision to become a USD 5 trillion economy by 2023-24 may be a formidable task, but is achievable.
    • This should, in the long term address all the issues which are either way hurdled with infrastructural inadequacies.

     

    References

    https://www.civilsdaily.com/news/national-infrastructure-pipeline-nip/

    https://www.bloombergquint.com/economy-finance/taskforce-on-infrastructure-cuts-healthcare-allocation-in-final-report

    164.100.117.97 › userfiles › DEA IPF NIP Report Vol 1

  • [Prelims Spotlight] Important Summits, Conventions and Declarations (Part 1)

    Prelims Spotlight is a part of “Nikaalo Prelims 2020” module. This open crash course for Prelims 2020 has a private telegram group where PDFs and DDS (Daily Doubt Sessions) are being held. Please click here to register.

    Important Summits, Conventions and Declarations (Part 1)

    09 May 2020

    1.RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands

    Brief Intro–

    • The Convention was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975 after UNESCO, the Convention’s depositary received the instruments of accession from the countries.
    • The RAMSAR Secretariat is based at the headquarters of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in Gland, Switzerland.
    • World Wetlands Day is celebrated on February 2nd.

    Key Objectives-

    • An intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

    Year-1971

    Place – Ramasar

    Key Terms-The Montreux Record – a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character are of concern. It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.

    India specific – India currently has 27 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites).

    2.The World Heritage Convention

    Brief Intro–

    The Convention recognizes the way in which people interact with nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the balance between the two.

    Key Objectives-

    The Convention defines the kind of natural or cultural sites which can be considered for inscription on the World Heritage List under UNESCO

    Year-1972

    3.Stockholm Conference

    Brief Intro–

    Stockholm Declaration contains 26 principles. These principles provide the basis of an International Policy for the Protection and improvement of the environment.

    Key Point-The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has been established by the UNGA in pursuance of the Stockholm Conference.

    Year-1972

    4.CITES

    Brief Intro–

    To ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants.

    Key Objectives-

    • It is a multilateral treaty drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
    • Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties – in other words they have to implement the Convention – it does not take the place of national laws.

    India Specific –

    The Government of India signed the Convention in July 1976, which was ratified in October 1976

    5.Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC)

    Brief Intro–

    Seeks to establish a uniform global legal regime for compensation to victims in the unlikely event of a nuclear accident. It was adopted on 12 September 1997. It can enter into force after ratification by at least 5 countries having a minimum of 400,000 units of installed nuclear capacity.

    Key Objectives-

    • It provides a uniform framework for channelling liability and providing speedy compensation after the nuclear accident.
    • Seeks to encourage regional and global co-operation to promote a higher level of nuclear safety in accordance with the principles of international partnership and solidarity.
    • All states are free to participate in it regardless of their presence of nuclear installations on their territories or involvement in existing nuclear liability conventions.
    • It has been framed inconsistent with the principles of the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (1963) and the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy (1960).

    India Specific –

    India has ratified Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC), 1997 which sets parameters on a nuclear operator’s financial liability.

    6.Nuclear security summit

    Brief Intro–

    The Nuclear Security Summit (NSS) is a world summit, aimed at preventing nuclear terrorism around the globe. The first summit was held in Washington, D.C., United States, on April 12–13, 2010. The second summit was held in Seoul, South Korea, in 2012. The third summit was held in The Hague, Netherlands, on March 24–25, 2014. The fourth summit was held in Washington, D.C. on March 31–April 1, 2016.

    Key Objectives-

    Aimed at preventing nuclear terrorism around the globe.

    India specific-

    Prime Minister Narendra Modi attended the NSS 2016 in Washington

    7.Ashgabat Agreement

    Brief Intro–

    Ashgabat Agreement is an international transport and transit corridor facilitating transportation of goods between Central Asia and the Persian Gulf.

    Key Objectives-

    • The transit agreement provides for a transit corridor across Central Asia and the Middle East through the continuous landmass between Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Iran before reaching the Persian Gulf and into Oman.
    • The objective of this agreement is to enhance connectivity within Eurasian region and synchronize it with other transport corridors within that region including the International North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC).

    8.The Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA)

    Brief Intro–

    The Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA) is an inter-governmental forum for enhancing cooperation towards promoting peace, security and stability in Asia.

    Key Objectives-

    It is a forum based on the recognition that there is close link between peace, security and stability in Asia and in the rest of the world.enhancing cooperation towards promoting peace, security and stability in Asia.

    India Specific-

    India is a member of CICA

    9.Beijing declaration

    Brief Intro–

    The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPfA) is an international declaration of women’s rights set up at the UN’s landmark Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995.

    Key Objectives-

    • The BPfA covers 12 key critical matters of concern and areas for action including women and poverty, violence against women and access to power and decision- making.
    • It was supported by 189 countries, including the UK, at the 1995 World Conference.gender equality and the empowerment of all women, everywhere.1995.
    • It was the outcome of The Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace convened by UN.

    12.The World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)

    Brief Intro–

    The World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) is a treaty adopted by the 56th World Health Assembly held in Geneva,Switzerland on 21 May 2003.

    Key Objectives-

    • It became the first World Health Organization treaty adopted under article 19 of the WHO constitution.To protect present and future generations from the devastating health, social, environmental and economic consequences of tobacco consumption and exposure to tobacco smoke” by enacting a set of universal standards stating the dangers of tobacco and limiting its use in all forms worldwide.
    • The FCTC established two principal bodies to oversee the functioning of the treaty: the Conference of the parties and the permanent Secretariat. In addition, there are over 50 different intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations who are official observers to the Conference of the Parties.

    India Specific-

    India has hosted 7th Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC).

    10.G-7

    Brief Intro–

    • The Group of Seven (G7) is an informal bloc of industrialized democracies—Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States—that meets annually to discuss issues such as global economic governance, international security, and energy policy.
    • Russia belonged to the forum from 1998 through 2014—then the Group of Eight (G8)—but was suspended after its annexation of Crimea in March of that year.

    11.G-20

    Brief Intro– It was started in 1999 as a meeting of Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors in the aftermath of the Southeast Asian (Tiger economies) financial crisis.

    Key Objectives-

    • The Group of Twenty (G20) is the premier forum for its members’ international economic cooperation and decision-making.
    • It is deliberating forum for the governments and central bank governors from 20 major economies on economic issues and other important development challenges.
    • In 2008, the first G20 Leaders’ Summit was held in Washington DC, US. The group had played a key role in responding to the global financial crisis. It comprises total 19 countries plus the European Union (EU), representing 85% of global GDP, 80% of international trade, 65% of world’s population. Its members include Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, India, France, Germany, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Russia, Turkey, South Africa, UK, US and EU. 4.The 2016 summit was held in Hangzhou China.
    • It was established for studying, reviewing, and promoting high-level discussion of policy issues pertaining to the promotion of international financial stability.

    India Specific-

    India is a founding member of G-20

    12.International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

    Brief Intro–

    It is a comprehensive international agreement in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, which aims at guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange and sustainable use of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA), as well as the fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use.

    Key Objectives-

    • It also recognises Farmers’ Rights, subject to national laws the protection of traditional knowledge relevant to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
    • The right to equitably participate in sharing benefits arising from the utilisation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture;
    • The right to participate in making decisions, at the national level, on matters related to the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
    • It is a comprehensive international agreement in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity.

    India Specific-

    India has signed the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

    13.Marrakesh treaty

    Brief Intro–

    • The treaty requires signatories to introduce national law provisions that facilitate the availability of published works in formats like Braille that are accessible to the blind and allow their exchange across borders by organizations working for the visually impaired.

    Key Objectives-

    • The pact will help import of accessible format copies from the member countries by the Indian authorized entities such as educational institutions, libraries and other institutions working for the welfare of the visually impaired.
    • The treaty will also ease translation of imported accessible format copies and export of accessible format copies in Indian languages.To create a set of mandatory limitations and exceptions for the benefit of the blind, visually impaired and otherwise print disabled (VIPs).

    14.London Declaration

    Brief Intro–

    • The London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases is a collaborative disease eradication programme launched on 30 January 2012 in London.
    • It was inspired by the World Health Organization 2020 roadmap to eradicate or negate transmission for neglected tropical diseases.
    • Officials from WHO, the World Bank, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the world’s 13 leading pharmaceutical companies, and government representatives from US, UK, United Arab Emirate, Bangladesh, Brazil, Mozambique and Tanzania participated in a joint meeting at the Royal College of Physicians to launch this project.

    15.Declaration of Montreal

    Brief Intro–

    The Declaration of Montreal on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Human Rights is a document adopted in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, on July 29, 2006, by the International Conference on LGBT Human Rights which formed part of the first World Outgames.

    Key Objectives-

    • The Declaration outlines a number of rights and freedoms pertaining to LGBT and intersex people that it is proposed to be universally guaranteed.
    • It encompasses all aspects of human rights, from the guarantee of fundamental freedoms to the prevention of discrimination against LGBT people in healthcare, education and immigration.
    • The Declaration also addresses various issues that impinge on the global promotion of LGBT rights and intersex human rights.

    16. Istanbul Convention

    Brief Intro–

    • The Istanbul Convention is the first legally-binding instrument which “creates a comprehensive legal framework and approach to combat violence against women” and is focussed on preventing domestic violence, protecting victims and prosecuting accused offenders. The convention aims at prevention of violence, victim protection and “to end with the impunity of perpetrators.
    • The Council of Europe. Only European countries have signed this convention.

    17.vienna convention on diplomatic relations

    Brief Intro–

    It is a treaty that came into force in 1964 2.It lays out the rules and regulations for diplomatic relations between countries as well as the various privileges that diplomats and diplomatic missions enjoy.

    Key Objectives-

    • One of these privileges is legal immunity for diplomats so that they don’t have to face prosecution as per their host country’s laws.
    • The Vienna Convention classifies diplomats according to their posting in the embassy, consular or international organisations such as the UN. A nation has only one embassy per foreign country, usually in the capital, but may have multiple consulate offices, generally in locations where many of its citizens live or visit.
    • Diplomats posted in an embassy get immunity, along with his or her family members. While diplomats posted in consulates too get immunity, they can be prosecuted in case of serious crimes, that is, when a warrant is issued.
    • Besides, their families don’t share that immunity.It has been ratified by 187 countries, including India.

    18.Jaipur Summit

    Brief Intro–

    • The Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) was launched during Hon’ble Prime Minister, Mr. Narendra Modi’s visit to Fiji in November 2014.
    • FIPIC includes 14 of the island countries – Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
    • The second summit of the Forum for India Pacific Cooperation (FIPIC-2) in Jaipur on 21-22 August 2015 has made significant progress in strengthening India’s engagement with the 14 Pacific Island countries. Increase Cooperation Between India and 14 Pacific Countries.

    Key Objectives-

    • Though these countries are relatively small in land area and distant from India, many have large exclusive economic zones (EEZs), and offer promising possibilities for fruitful cooperation.
    • India’s focus has largely been on the Indian Ocean where it has sought to play a major role and protect its strategic and commercial interests. The FIPIC initiative marks a serious effort to expand India’s engagement in the Pacific region.
    • At this moment, total annual trade of about $300 million between the Indian and Pacific Island countries, where as exports are around $200 million and imports are around $100 million.

    19.NPT

    Brief Intro–

    The NPT is a landmark international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament.

    Key Objectives-

    • The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States. Opened for signature in 1968, the Treaty entered into force in 1970.
    • To prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament.

    India Specific-

    India has not signed the treaty as India argues that the NPT creates a club of “nuclear haves” and a larger group of “nuclear have-nots” by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid.

    20.CTBT

    Brief Intro–

    • The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty that bans all nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments.
    • It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996 but has not entered into force as eight specific states have not ratified the treaty. Nuclear weapon-free
    • The treaty thus awaits signature and ratification from India, Pakistan, and North Korea and in addition requires the United States, China, Israel, Iran and Egypt (which have already signed) to formally ratify it.

    India Specific-

    Even though it is yet to sign the CTBT, India has supported the treaty’s basic principle of banning nuclear explosions by declaring a unilateral moratorium on nuclear testing. India’s expressed support to the essential requirement of the treaty makes it a de facto member of the CTBT.

  • Law to deal with pandemics

    India lacks specific legislation to deal with pandemics like COVID. While NDMA 2005 and Epidemic Diseases Act 1897 has been invoked to deal with the present situation, both acts lack specific provision in dealing with the pandemics. Here we can take lessons from UK’s Coronavirus Act and Singapore’s regulations to create a well-drafted Indian COVID 19 law.

    Which acts were used for enforcing lockdown?

    • The home ministry issued directions to State governments and district authorities under the Disaster Management Act of 2005.
    • Under the Act, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was set up under the Prime Minister, and the National Executive Committee (NEC) was chaired by the Home Secretary.
    • The State governments and authorities exercised powers under the Epidemic Diseases Act of 1897 to issue further directions.
    • District authorities such as the Commissioner of Police have consequently issued orders to impose Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code in public places.

    Issues with the laws used for lockdown

    • The invoking of the Disaster Management Act has allowed the Union government to communicate seamlessly with the States.
    • But serious questions remain whether the Act was originally intended to or is sufficiently capable of addressing the threat of a pandemic.
    • The use of the archaic Epidemic Diseases Act reveals the lack of requisite diligence and responsiveness of government authorities in providing novel and innovative policy solutions to address a 21st-century problem.
    • Another serious problem is that any violation of the orders passed would be prosecutable under Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code.
    • But section 188 of IPC is a very ineffective and broad provision dealing with disobedience of an order issued by a public servant.

    The UK and Singapore’s laws to deal with the pandemic

    • U.K’s Coronavirus Act, 2020: It deals with issues including emergency registration of healthcare professionals, temporary closure of educational institutions, audio-visual facilities for criminal proceedings, powers to restrict gatherings, and financial assistance to industry.
    • Singapore’s Infectious Diseases Regulations, 2020: These regulations provides for the issuance of stay orders which can send ‘at-risk individuals’ to a government-specified accommodation facility.
    • Both U.K.’s and Singapore’s laws set out unambiguous conditions and legally binding obligations.
    • As such, under Singaporean law, the violators may be penalised up to $10,000 or face six months imprisonment or both.
    • In contrast, Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code has a fine amount of ₹200 to ₹1,000 or imprisonment of one to six months.
    • Even then, proceedings under Section 188 can only be initiated by private complaint and not through a First Information Report.
    • As such, offences arising out of these guidelines and orders have a weak basis in terms of criminal jurisdiction thereby weakening the objectives of the lockdown.

    Problems in the government’s approach

    • The Union government showed no inclination towards drafting or enacting COVID-19-specific legislation that could address all the issues pre-emptively.
    • There has been little clarity on a road map to economic recovery.
    • A consolidated, pro-active policy approach is absent.
    • In fact, there has been ad hoc and reactive rule-making, as seen in the way migrant workers have been treated.
    • This has also exposed the lack of coordination between the Union and State governments.

    Consider the question, “Unlike many countries which legislated specific acts to deal with Covid-19 pandemic, India was already equipped with acts which enabled it to deal with the pandemic. Describe the acts and their provisions used to deal with the pandemic. What were the issues  with these provisions?”

    Conclusion

    In past instances, the Union government has not shied away from promulgating ordinances. These circumstances call out for legislative leadership, to assist and empower States to overcome COVID-19 and to revive their economic, education and public health sectors.

    Back2Basics: National Disaster Management Act 2005

    • On 23 December 2005, the Government of India enacted the Disaster Management Act.
    • The act envisaged the creation of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister.
    • The act also provides for State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by respective Chief Ministers.
    • NDMA and SDMAs spearhead and implement a holistic and integrated approach to Disaster Management in India.
    • The NDMA was formally constituted on 27thSeptember 2006, in accordance with the Disaster Management Act, 2005 with Prime Minister as its Chairperson and nine other members, and one such member to be designated as Vice-Chairperson.
    • According to the Disaster Management Act, 2005 a disaster is defined as-
    • A catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area.
    • The MHA has defined a disaster as an “extreme disruption of the functioning of a society that causes widespread human, material, or environmental losses that exceed the ability of the affected society to cope with its own resources.

    Epidemic Diseases Act  1897

    • The Epidemic Diseases Act is routinely enforced across the country for dealing with outbreaks of diseases such as swine flu, dengue, and cholera.
    • The colonial government introduced the Act to tackle the epidemic of bubonic plague that had spread in the erstwhile Bombay Presidency in the 1890s.
    • Using powers conferred by the Act, colonies authorities would search suspected plague cases in homes and among passengers, with forcible segregations, evacuations, and demolitions of infected places.
    • Historians have criticised the Act for its potential for abuse.
    • In 1897, the year the law was enforced, Lokmanya Tilak was punished with 18 months’ rigorous imprisonment after his newspapers Kesari and Mahratta admonished imperial authorities for their handling of the plague epidemic.

    Provisions of the 1897 Epidemic Diseases Act

    • The Act is one of the shortest Acts in India, comprising just four sections. It aims to provide for the better prevention of the spread of Dangerous Epidemic Diseases.
    • The then Governor-General of colonial India had conferred special powers upon the local authorities to implement the measures necessary for the control of epidemics.
    • Although, the act does define or give a description of a “dangerous epidemic disease”.

    Its various sections can be summarized as under

    • The first section describes all the title and extent, the second part explains all the special powers given to the state government and centre to take special measures and regulations to contain the spread of disease.
    • The second section has a special subsection 2A empowers the central government to take steps to prevent the spread of an epidemic, especially allowing the government to inspect any ship arriving or leaving any post and the power to detain any person intending to sail or arriving in the country.
    • The third section describes the penalties for violating the regulations in accordance with Section 188 of the IPC. Section 3 states, “Six months’ imprisonment or 1,000 rupees fine or both could be charged out to the person who disobeys this Act.”
    • The fourth and the last section deals with legal protection to implementing officers acting under the Act.

  • 08 May 2020 | Nikaalo Prelims Quiz -Important International Organizations Test

    [WpProQuiz 431]

  • Judiciary’s tryst with technology

    COVID pandemic has been changing many aspects of our life and forcing us to innovate or embrace the novel changes. The judiciary is not immune to this change. This article advocates for the adoption and popularization of online court. But there were several attempts at the adoption of technology in the working of courts even before the pandemic. Time has now come to its adoption on a wider scale.

    Three types of courts in our justice delivery system

    • First, conventional courts located in court complexes where judges, lawyers and litigants are physically present.
    • Second, online courts where the judge is physically present in the courtroom but the lawyer or litigant is not.
    • This is the present arrangement, except that now the courtroom is the residential office of the judge, due to the lockdown.
    • Third, virtual courts where there is no judge, lawyer or litigant and a computer takes a decision based on the inputs of the litigant.

    Pilot project with Tihar Jail

    • The pilot was for dealing with routine remand cases of prisoners.
    • The procedure postulated prisoners being produced in court, not physically but through video conferencing (VC), hence an online court.
    • The pilot project started tentatively with some hiccups but proved to be a success.
    • Now several courts have adopted the online process with varying degrees of commitment.

    District courts and High Courts’ adoption of online route

    • A few district judges have taken a step forward and recorded the statement of parties in cases of divorce by mutual consent.
    • As of now, several such cases, including those involving NRIs, are dealt with through VC in online courts.
    • Punjab and Haryana judges have gone even further ahead. The online courts record the expert evidence of doctors from PGIMER through VC.
    • This has freed the doctors from time-consuming trips to the courts and has resulted in savings of several crores for the exchequer.
    • A determined and concerted effort is necessary to popularise online courts at the district level.
    • Some high court judges in Delhi and Punjab and Haryana have completely dispensed with paper.
    • In these high courts, everything is on a soft copy, through e-Filing and scanned documents.
    • Lawyers and judges have made necessary adjustments to the new regime and the cases are conveniently heard and decided in “paperless courts”.
    • A few other high courts initiated similar steps, but have yet to institutionalise “paperless courts”.

    What are the problems?

    • Unfamiliarity with the medium of communication is the major issue. Judges are simply not used to consciously facing a camera generally and in particular while hearing a case.
    • Similarly, lawyers find it difficult to comfortably argue while seated.
    • Body language, facial expressions, the tone and tenor, both of the judge and the lawyer, make for important signals and clues which cannot be captured in VC.
    • Some technical problems in conducting online hearings have also surfaced. The bandwidth is not adequate or stable enough.
    • The picture sometimes breaks or gets frozen and the voice often cracks.
    • Consultations are also a problem. Lawyers occasionally need to consult their client or the instructing advocate; judges also need to consult each other during a hearing.
    • Attention needs to be paid to these real-time issues otherwise lawyers will harbour misgivings about a fair hearing.
    • The chairman of the Bar Council of India has voiced a concern that 90 per cent of the lawyers are not computer literate or tech-savvy.

    eCourts Project: A virtual court

    • A virtual court is a unique contribution of the eCourts Project.
    • A pilot virtual court was launched in August 2018 in Delhi for traffic offences and it has been a great success.
    • Virtual courts have been successfully tried out in Delhi, Haryana, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
    • A virtual court is a simple programme through which a person can find out if a challan has been issued to him or her through a search facility.
    • If a challan has been issued, the details are available online and the person may plead guilty or not guilty.
    • On a guilty plea, the minimum fine is imposed and on a not-guilty plea, the case is electronically transferred to the traffic court for trial.
    • At the end of the day, a judge reviews the cases and disposes of them electronically depending on the option exercised.
    • One judge is all it takes to manage the virtual court for Delhi or an entire state.
    • With the launch of virtual courts, the daily footfalls to the courts have drastically reduced and thousands have pleaded guilty and paid the fine electronically.

    Potential of the virtual courts

    • The virtual court system has the potential of being upscaled and other petty offences attracting a fine such as delayed payments of local taxes or compoundable offences can also be dealt with by virtual courts.
    • This will ease the burden on conventional courts and therefore must be strongly encouraged.

    Consider the question- “Covid-19 pandemic has been forcing judiciary for faster adoption of technology. Discuss the issues and advantages of the adoption of technology such as video conferencing by the judiciary”

    Conclusion

    Post lockdown, justice delivery will certainly undergo a transformation. And judges, lawyers and litigants will need to adapt to the new normal. Several countries and courts have made adjustments not only for the period of the pandemic or lockdown but also for the future. We should certainly not be left behind but must also make a roadmap to meet the challenge.

  • Transforming the Military

    The COVID blaze caused economic disruption and now even the military is feeling the heat. The military is grappling with multiple issues like freezing of fresh capital acquisition and delay in procurement. But this could also be considered as an opportunity to transform the Indian military. 4 areas where this transformation could start are discussed in this article. Read to know more.

    The difference in approaches to security

    • Pakistan’s approach: Pakistan stagnates in an existential-threat-based and India-centric approach to national security.
    • What is China’s approach? China’s expansive global strategy and unbridled capability-based development surge have overcome the dangers of direct competition with the US.
    • It has closed the gap through an “indirect approach to international security”.
    • This indirect approach looks at building on strengths in areas such as cyberspace, non-contact warfare, economic and diplomatic coercion.

    So, what should be India’s approach to security?

    • Strategic guidelines for India’s must shift from a threat-based methodology to a multi-disciplinary capability.
    • An outcome-based orientation to fit with the nation’s power aspirations.

    4 most critical means to kick-start the transformation:

    1. Creation of indigenous defence capability

    • Doing this without brushing away the short and medium-term requirement of selective imports will be the key to a calibrated march to self-sufficiency.

    2. Leadership

    • India’s military leadership is very hierarchical and sequential in its approach.
    • However, this same leadership has superb operational skills and possesses a quick understanding of technology, tactics, techniques and procedures.
    • Consequently, strategic leaders need to be identified and their transition towards becoming more than mere executors of operational plans and campaigns needs to be enabled.
    • Multi-disciplinary thinking, lateral assimilation and a world-view are among the specific skill-sets that need to be nurtured.

    3. Training and Education

    • Training and education form the next two silos in the process of transformation.
    • The US example: Several military officers at the colonel level — fresh out of war colleges and the university environment where they spend a year of education (not training) — are posted at the Pentagon and NATO HQ.
    • Here, they work alongside civilians, politicians, lawmakers, not forgetting their own joint leadership.
    • In such an environment, it is not difficult to mark, train and recognise talent in ways that go beyond the mere rank structure.
    • It is high time India goes down that road because even though economic globalisation may be on hold for a while post-COVID-19, there is going to be a flattening of the world from a security perspective.
    • There will be common threats that would need to be fought jointly by nations.
    • The three pre-requisites in these silos will be an amalgam of 1)service-centric and joint operations expertise, 2) operational acumen in a global environment, and 3) broad-based education that develops intellectual capital.
    • Training in the Indian military is top-notch and needs a little tweaking to help officers and men understand the rules of engagement in a Volatile, Uncertain, Complex and Ambiguous (VUCA) world.
    • It is diversified education at all levels of leadership that is a weak area.

    4. Jointness and integration

    • Finally, the silo of jointness and integration without losing identities and compromising competencies is an outcome that needs to be chased down with focus and determination.

    Consider the question based on the issues discussed in the article “Strategic guidelines for India’s security managers must shift from a threat-based methodology to a multi-disciplinary capability and outcome-based orientation to fit with the nation’s power aspirations. Based on some expert committee reports, discuss the ways which the Indian military follow to achieve the transformation to satisfy the nation’s power aspirations.”

    Conclusion

    Some difficulties caused to the military due to COVID pandemic should be considered as an opportunity. It should be an opportunity to evolve a transformational culture in the Indian military. This should be based on clear political guidelines driven by existing and futuristic capabilities, expected strategic outcomes and anticipated strategic challenges.

     

  • Attack on Pearl Harbor (1941)

    US President Mr Trump has said the COVID-19 pandemic is a worse “attack” on the U.S. than either Pearl Harbor or 9/11.

    Practice Question :

    Discuss how the world order changed post Pearl Harbour attack with context to the US hegemony in Asia-Pacific.

    Attack on Pearl Harbor

    • The December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbour was among the most significant moments of the World War II.
    • It signalled the official entry of the US into the hostilities, which eventually led to the dropping of nuclear bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.
    • Significantly, in December 2016, Shinzo Abe became the first sitting Japanese Prime Minister to visit Pearl Harbour.

    What led up to the attack on Pearl Harbour?

    • Before Japan attacked Pearl Harbour in 1941, relations between the US and Japan were already worsening.
    • In 1910, Japan annexed Korea and, in 1937, it invaded China, sending alarm bells ringing in the US and other Western powers about Japan’s manifest expansionist agenda.
    • Between December 1937 and January 1938, an episode which is referred to as the “Nanking Massacre” or the “Rape of Nanking”, occurred — Japanese soldiers killed and raped Chinese civilians and combatants.
    • Japanese historians estimate that anywhere between tens of thousands and 200,000 Chinese were killed.
    • The US was against Japan’s aggression in China, and imposed economic sanctions and trade embargoes after its invasion.

    Immediate causes

    • Japan was reliant on imports for oil and other natural resources — this was one of the reasons why it invaded China and later French Indo-China (present-day Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia).
    • The intention was to take control of the major Chinese ports to have access to resources such as iron, rubber, tin, and most importantly, oil.
    • In July 1941, the US ceased exporting oil to Japan.
    • Negotiations between the two countries ended with the “Hull Note”, the final proposal delivered to Japan by the US. Essentially, the US wanted Japan to withdraw from China without any conditions.
    • Ultimately, the negotiations did not lead to any concrete results, following which Japan set its task for Pearl Harbour in the last week of November 1941.
    • Japan considered the attack to be a preventive measure against the US interfering with Japan’s plans to carry out military operations in some parts of Southeast Asia.

    What happened at Pearl Harbour?

    • About 7.55 am on December 7, 1941, about 180 aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the US Naval base at Pearl Harbour on the island of Oahu in Hawaii.
    • The bombing killed over 2,300 Americans and destroyed the battleships USS Arizona and USS Oklahoma.
    • Roughly 160 aircraft were destroyed, and 150 were damaged.

    Impact on the US

    • In the short term, the American naval presence in the Pacific was severely weakened.
    • However, the Japanese had largely ignored the harbour’s infrastructure, and many of the damaged ships were repaired on-site and returned to duty.
    • American opinion immediately shifted to favouring war with Japan, a course that would conclude with Japan’s unconditional surrender less than four years later.

  • Vizag Gas Leak: What is Styrene Gas?

    A gas leak has claimed at least 11 lives and affected thousands of residents in five villages in Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.  The source of the leak was a styrene plant owned by South Korean electronics giant LG.

    Practice question:

    Despite a robust policy framework governing the hazardous chemicals in India, the recent gas leakage incident in Vizag highlights India’s unaddressed vulnerability to chemical disasters. Criticallly comment.

    Vizag gas lead: What is styrene?

    • It is a flammable liquid that is used in the manufacturing of polystyrene plastics, fibreglass, rubber, and latex.
    • Styrene is also found in vehicle exhaust, cigarette smoke, and in natural foods like fruits and vegetables.
    • According to The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989, styrene is classified as a toxic and hazardous chemical.

    What happens when exposed to styrene?

    • A short-term exposure to the substance can result in respiratory problems, irritation in the eyes, irritation in the mucous membrane, and gastrointestinal issues.
    • And long-term exposure could drastically affect the central nervous system and lead to other related problems like peripheral neuropathy.
    • It is, likely, a carcinogenic substance that can react with oxygen in the air to mutate into styrene dioxide, a substance that is more lethal.
    • However, there is no sufficient evidence despite several epidemiology studies indicating there may be an association between styrene exposure and an increased risk of leukaemia and lymphoma.

    What are the symptoms?

    • Symptoms include headache, hearing loss, fatigue, weakness, difficulty in concentrating etc.
    • Animal studies have reported effects on the nervous system, liver, kidney, and eye and nasal irritation from inhalation exposure to styrene.

    How bad is the situation in Visakhapatnam?

    • It is yet unclear whether the deaths are due to direct exposure to styrene gas or one of its byproducts.
    • However, hundreds of people including many children were admitted to hospitals.
    • The cases are high as the gas leak was only detected at 3 am in the morning, meaning several crucial hours have been lost till safety precautions were taken.
    • More fatally, the gas was leaked while people were fast asleep.

    What caused the leak?

    • Styrene monomer was used at the manufacturing plant to produce expandable plastics.
    • The storage requirement of styrene monomer strictly mentions that it has to be below 17 degrees Celsius.
    • There was a temporary and partial shutdown of the plant because of the nationwide lockdown.
    • The leak occurred as a result of styrene gas not being kept at the appropriate temperature.
    • This caused a pressure build-up in the storage chamber that contained styrene and caused the valve to break, resulting in the gas leakage.

    Is it under control?

    • The leak has been plugged and NDRF teams moved into the five affected villages and have started opening the houses to find out if anyone was stranded inside.
    • The Covid-19 preparedness helped a lot as dozens of ambulances with oxygen cylinders and ventilators were readily available.
    • The spread of the gas depends on wind speeds. So far it is estimated that areas within a five-kilometre radius have been affected.

    What are the guidelines on the storage of hazardous chemicals in plants?

    After the Bhopal disaster, much legislation was enacted starting from the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991. They are-

    Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 Omnibus act, which gives sweeping powers to Central government to take all measures to protect the environment
    Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 Set discharge and product standards – source standards for restricting pollution; product standards for manufactured goods and ambient air and water standards – for regulating quality of life and environmental protection
    Hazardous Waste (Management Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 1989 Industry required to identify major accident hazards, take preventive measures and submit a report to the designated authorities
    Manufacture, Storage And Import Of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 Importer must furnish complete product safety information to the competent authority and must transport imported chemicals in accordance with the amended rules.
    Chemical Accidents (Emergency, Planning, Preparedness and Response) Rules, 1996 Centre is required to constitute a central crisis group for management of chemical accidents; set up quick response mechanism termed as the crisis alert system. Each state is required to set up a crisis group and report on its work.
    Factories Amendment Act, 1987 Provision to regulate siting of hazardous units; safety of workers and nearby residents and mandates for on-site emergency plans and disaster control measures
    Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 Imposes a no-fault liability on the owner of hazardous substance and requires the owner to compensate victims of accident irrespective of any neglect or default. For this, the owner is required to take out an insurance policy covering potential liability from any accident.

     

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