According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) report titled “State of the World Population 2025: The Real Fertility Crisis”, India’s population has reached an estimated 146.39 crore, officially making it the world’s most populous nation.
About United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA):
Origin: The organisation was established in 1969 as the UN Fund for Population Activities and renamed in 1987 as the UN Population Fund.
Headquarters: Its global headquarters is located in New York.
Mission Statement: UNFPA works to ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe, and every young person’s potential is fulfilled.
Mandate: To promote sexual and reproductive health and rights, including family planning, safe motherhood, and gender equality.
Governance Structure: UNFPA reports to a 36-member Executive Board, with representation from all regions, and receives guidance from ECOSOC and the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
Global Presence: UNFPA operates in over 150 countries, in coordination with national governments and UN development partners.
Key Functions: It supports population censuses, family planning programs, and thematic health surveys, and engages in interagency frameworks like UN Development Group (UNDG) and UN Chief Executives Board (CEB).
Technical Role: UNFPA also provides research funding, technical assistance, and advocacy support to promote reproductive health and demographic planning.
Key Population Trends from the UNFPA Report (2025):
Data Sources: The report draws on Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), and projections from the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA).
India’s Population: As of 2025, India’s population is estimated at 146.39 crore (1.4639 billion), making it the most populous country in the world.
China’s Population: China’s population now stands at 141.61 crore (1.4161 billion), placing it second.
Total Fertility Rate: India’s TFR has declined to 1.9, which is below the replacement level of 2.1, indicating a trend toward population stabilisation.
Population Forecast: India’s population is expected to peak at around 170 crores in the coming decades and begin to decline within 40 years.
Life Expectancy: As of 2025, the average life expectancy is 71 years for men and 74 years for women.
Age Distribution: 68% of Indians are in the working-age group (15–64), while 7% are aged 65 and above, with life expectancy at 71 years (men) and 74 years (women).
Back2Basics: Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
TFR measures the average number of children a woman would have over her reproductive lifetime.
A TFR of 2.1 is considered the replacement level, where each generation replaces itself without growing or shrinking.
According to the 2021 Sample Registration System by the Registrar General of India, the TFR had already reached 2.0, indicating that India had attained replacement level fertility nationally.
[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
Which of the statements given abova is/are correct ?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*
The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment (KATRIN) in Germany has achieved a major breakthrough in the search to measure the mass of the neutrino.
What are Neutrinos?
Neutrinos are tiny, electrically neutral subatomic particles with an extremely small mass.
They come in 3 types (or “flavours”): electron, muon, and tau neutrinos.
Neutrinos are produced in nuclear reactions, such as those in the Sun, nuclear reactors, and supernovae.
They rarely interact with matter, making them very difficult to detect.
Their ability to change from one flavour to another (called oscillation) proves they have mass.
Neutrinos challenge the Standard Model of physics, hinting at undiscovered particles or forces.
About KATRIN Experiment:
What is it: The KATRIN experiment is based at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany and aims to measure the absolute mass of electron antineutrinos with unmatched precision.
Launch and Operation: It was inaugurated in 2018 and began data collection in 2019, with its latest results derived from 259 days of measurements.
Scientific Principle: KATRIN uses tritium beta decay, where tritium breaks into helium, an electron, and a neutrino, to study the energy spectrum of emitted electrons.
Focus Area: The experiment analyzes electrons near the energy endpoint, since they are most influenced by the neutrino mass.
How KATRIN measures Neutrino mass?
KATRIN focuses on electrons that are emitted with energies close to the maximum limit (called the endpoint), which are most affected by the neutrino mass.
A retarding electric field filters out lower-energy electrons, allowing only the highest-energy ones to be measured precisely.
By analyzing millions of such decay events, KATRIN estimates the upper limit on the neutrino mass.
India’s Achievements in Neutrino Observations:
Historical Detection: India was among the first countries to detect atmospheric neutrinos in 1965 at the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), marking a pioneering achievement in neutrino physics.
INO Project: The India-Based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is under development in Tamil Nadu, set to become a premier underground research facility.
Flagship Detector: INO will house the Iron Calorimeter (ICAL), a 50,000-tonne magnetized detector, which will be the largest of its kind in the world.
Applications: INO will advance detector technologies, enable training in high-energy physics, and have potential applications in medical imaging and electronics.
Global Integration: India’s involvement in neutrino science positions it to contribute unique insights to global efforts, complementing projects like IceCube.
[UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the Planning Commission as a mega science project under the 11th five-Year Plan. In this context, consider the following statements:
1. Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but nonzero mass.
4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through human body every second.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1,2,3 and 4 *
At the Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) in Nice, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica, India made a powerful case for urgent international cooperation to protect the world’s oceans.
About United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC)
What is it: The UNOC is a major international forum dedicated to supporting Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14): Life Below Water.
Primary Focus: It promotes the conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas, and marine resources.
Multi-Stakeholder Participation: UNOC brings together governments, NGOs, academia, intergovernmental organizations, private companies, and Indigenous communities to address ocean-related challenges.
Key Themes: The conference tackles issues like marine pollution, overfishing, climate change, and habitat degradation, and encourages policy coordination and financial pledges.
Timeline of Conferences:
2017: First conference in New York, co-hosted by Fiji and Sweden
2022: Second in Lisbon, co-hosted by Portugal and Kenya
2025: Third in Nice, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica
2028: Fourth conference to be hosted by Chile and South Korea (yet to be announced officially)
Legal Framework: UNOC operates within the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
Financial and Policy Impact: Since 2014, UNOC has mobilized over $130 billion and generated 2,160+ voluntary commitments toward protecting ocean health.
Major Indian Initiatives Showcased at UNOC3 (2025):
Deep Ocean Mission: India showcased progress on the ‘Samudrayaan’ mission, a deep-sea manned submersible targeting 6,000-meter depth by 2026.
Plastic Pollution Action: India emphasized the national ban on single-use plastics and the ‘Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar’ campaign, which has cleaned 1,000+ km of coastline and removed over 50,000 tonnes of plastic waste. A draft Marine Litter Policy has been prepared and India strongly supports a Global Plastics Treaty.
Blue Economy Development: Under the Sagarmala Programme, $80 billion has been invested in port-led infrastructure. An additional $2.5 billion has been deployed under PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, leading to a 10% rise in fish production and creation of 1,000+ fish farmer producer organizations.
Marine Biodiversity Efforts: India expanded Marine Protected Areas to 6.6% of its Exclusive Economic Zone and restored over 10,000 hectares of mangroves.
Marine Data Transparency: India launched the SAHAV Portal, a digital ocean governance platform for science-based and transparent decision-making.
International Leadership: India co-led the ‘Blue Talks’ with France and Costa Rica, participated in high-level panels, and advocated for equitable ocean data access and capacity-building in developing nations.
Back2Basics: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
UNCLOS is a global treaty that regulates all maritime activities and ocean space.
It defines maritime zones such as: Internal Waters (within the baseline), Territorial Sea (up to 12 nautical miles), Contiguous Zone (up to 24 nautical miles), Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (up to 200 nautical miles), High Seas, which lie beyond national jurisdiction.
It came into force in 1994 and has 169 parties (as of 2024), including India, but not the U.S.
It established the International Seabed Authority and declared the deep seabed as the “common heritage of mankind.”
India ratified UNCLOS in 1995 and uses it to claim maritime rights, including its extended continental shelf.
It supports freedom of navigation and advocates for a rules-based maritime order under UNCLOS.
[UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:
1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.
2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.
3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*
Cracking UPSC in the first attempt is no longer a rare feat. This year alone, at least 8 aspirants in the Top 100, including Rank 26 Shivansh and Rank 44 Mudita, made it happen. And they didn’t come from privileged routines or perfect conditions. What they had in common was a smart, focused, and consistent plan, one that respected their time, energy, and limitations.
All the rankers (who qualified UPSC in one attempt) followed a completely different approach. Their prep was far from conventional way. They ruthlessly prioritised their syllabus (Microthemes), had a clear weekly plan, frequent assessments (Pre + Mains mocks), sharp feedback session (post test) by their mentors. And this is the one thing that you must understand in your first attempt.
If you are targeting UPSC 2027 and wondering whether it’s even possible with just 5 hours a day, the answer is yes. Whether you are a college student or a working professional, you don’t need to quit everything or follow 12 hour routines to make it. You just need a routine that actually works for your lifestyle.
That’s exactly what Rohit Pande Sir will help you build in this live session. He’ll break down a realistic 5 hour daily plan, one that’s worked for hundreds of aspirants who started just like you, short on time but big on intent. You will learn how to divide your day between GS, optional, current affairs, and writing, how to build weekly and monthly targets, and how to stay on track even when life gets busy.
This is your chance to start early, start right, and prepare with clarity, just like the toppers did. Join live on 12th June at 7 PM
It will be a 45 minute webinar, post which we will open up the floor for all kinds of queries which a beginner must have. No questions are taboo and Rohit Sir is known to be patiently solving all your doubts.
Join us for a Zoom session on 12th June at 7 PM. This session is a must-attend for you If you are attempting UPSC for the first time or have attempted earlier and now preparing for next year, then it is going to be a valuable session for you too.
See you in the session”
Register for the session for a complete in-depth UPSC 2027 Prep
(Don’t wait—the next webinar won’t be until July 25)
These masterclasses are packed with value. They are conducted in private with a closed community. We rarely open these webinars for everyone for free. This time we are keeping it for 300 seats only.
[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?
Linkage: Women’s empowerment and the critical need to incorporate gender concerns into programme design and implementation. The article extensively discuss how empowering women in agriculture is fundamental to achieving food security. For instance, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer to recognize, support, and enhance the role of women in ensuring food security, fostering economic prosperity, and promoting sustainability.
Mentor’s Comment: The United Nations has declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer to recognise the important but often overlooked role women play in growing food around the world. Over 100 countries supported this move, which highlights a major issue: while women produce up to 80% of food in developing countries, they are still left out when it comes to owning land. For example, in India, although 80% of working women are in farming, only 14% own land.
Today’s editorial talks about the problems faced by women farmers, which is an important topic for GS Paper I (women-related issues), GS Paper II (social justice), and GS Paper III (agriculture).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The International Year of the Woman Farmer in 2026 should focus on supporting strong, sustainable farming and ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women in agriculture.
What challenges do women farmers face in land and credit access?
Low Land Ownership Limits Entitlements: Despite forming nearly 80% of the economically active female workforce in agriculture, only 14% of landowners in India are women, and just 8.3% according to NFHS data. Eg: A woman working her family’s farmland may still lack legal ownership, preventing her from claiming government subsidies or schemes like PM-KISAN.
Difficulty Accessing Credit: Without land titles, women are often denied collateral-based loans from banks and formal financial institutions. Eg: A woman farmer in rural Bihar cannot access a loan for irrigation equipment because she doesn’t hold a land deed, pushing her to rely on informal moneylenders.
Inadequate Access to Financial Technology and Information: Women have limited access to mobile phones and agricultural advisories, which are crucial for credit applications and crop planning. Eg: In Assam, women supported by the ENACT project lacked timely access to climate forecasts, making it harder to plan credit usage for flood-resistant crop seeds.
Why is 2026 declared the International Year of the Woman Farmer?
To Recognise Women’s Vital Role in Agriculture: Women contribute to 60–80% of food production in developing countries and nearly 39% of the agricultural labour force in South Asia.
To Raise Awareness About Structural Challenges: The declaration aims to highlight barriers women face such as limited land ownership, market access, and credit availability. Eg: Only 14% of agricultural landowners in India are women, restricting their ability to access loans and government schemes.
To Promote Gender Equality and Empowerment: It seeks to promote gender-transformative agricultural development by encouraging inclusive policies, technology access, and self-help group participation. Eg: The ENACT project in Assam supports women farmers by linking them with agri-experts and providing mobile-based advisories to adapt to climate change.
What is the ENACT project?
The ENACT project stands for Enhancing Climate Adaptation of Vulnerable Communities through Nature-based Solutions and Gender-Transformative Approaches. Supported by the World Food Programme (WFP), the Government of Assam, and funded by Norway, it empowers women farmers in Nagaon
How does the ENACT project help women farmers adapt to climate change?
Access to Climate-Resilient Agricultural Information: ENACT provides weekly agricultural and climate advisories through mobile phones, enabling informed decision-making. Eg: Over 300 women farmers in 17 villages of Assam’s Nagaon district receive timely updates on weather and crop planning.
Promotion of Flood-Resistant Crop Varieties: The project introduces flood-tolerant rice varieties and promotes livelihood diversification to reduce climate-related risks. Eg: In Roha village, new rice varieties introduced by the project can survive underwater, helping farmers secure better yields during floods.
Strengthening Institutional and Technical Support: ENACT facilitates collaboration with local institutions, including agri-departments, universities, and meteorological agencies. Eg: Climate Adaptation Information Centres offer video conferencing tools for expert guidance and community meetings.
What policies support women farmers in India?
Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Enhances skills, capacity building, and promotes sustainable agriculture among women farmers. Eg: MKSP supports self-help groups (SHGs) in improving agricultural practices and income generation.
Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation: Provides 50% to 80% subsidies on farm machinery and equipment to reduce drudgery and improve productivity. Eg: Women farmers receive subsidised tools for sowing, weeding, and harvesting, enabling more efficient farm operations.
National Food Security Mission (NFSM) – Women’s Component: Allocates 30% of the budget for women farmers in select States and Union Territories to improve food production. Eg: Women beneficiaries receive support in seed distribution, training, and input provision under NFSM.
How does climate change impact women farmers?
Increased Domestic Burden and Agricultural Risk: Climate variability forces women to juggle household responsibilities with unpredictable farming conditions. Eg: In Assam, women like Nirmali Bora Hazarika report increased workload due to erratic weather and flood-prone crops.
Limited Access to Climate Information and Resources: Women have less access to weather updates, advisory services, and resilient crop technologies. Eg: Many women farmers lack mobile phones or connectivity to receive timely climate advisories.
Greater Vulnerability to Crop Loss and Livelihood Disruptions: Floods, droughts, and extreme weather events hit women-led farms harder due to lack of land rights and insurance. Eg: Without land ownership, women cannot claim compensation or loans to recover from climate-induced losses.
Way forward:
Enhance Land Rights and Legal Ownership: Governments must promote joint land titles, ensure inheritance rights, and simplify land registration processes for women. Eg: Initiatives like the Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) can help ensure legal recognition of women’s land ownership.
Expand Financial and Technological Access: Strengthen women’s inclusion in formal credit systems, promote mobile-based agricultural advisories, and invest in climate-resilient infrastructure. Eg: Scaling up programs like ENACT can equip women with timely climate information, insurance, and input support.
After the 2024 Maharashtra Assembly elections, Rahul Gandhi, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, raised serious concerns about the fairness and transparency of how the elections were conducted.
What are the concerns about voter roll changes in Maharashtra?
Abnormal Increase in Voter Numbers: Over 39 lakh new voters were added within just six months after the general election. Eg: The Hindu’s analysis revealed similar spikes before Assembly polls in 2014 as well, suggesting a pattern of inflated rolls.
Lack of Transparency and Verification: The Election Commission of India (ECI) has not released machine-readable data to allow public or party-level verification. Eg: Without verifiable voter roll data, political parties cannot check for duplication or manipulation.
Insufficient Involvement of Political Parties: The voter roll update process often excludes timely input from political parties, reducing scrutiny and accountability. Eg: Parties raise objections post-election rather than being involved during roll revision, weakening trust in the process.
Why is restricting CCTV access controversial?
Reduces Transparency in the Voting Process: Limiting access to CCTV footage raises suspicion about irregularities or malpractice. Eg: The Centre’s amendment to the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961 restricts access, despite demands by political parties like Congress.
Hinders Complaint Verification: Without footage, it’s difficult to verify allegations of booth-level misconduct. Eg: Parties cannot validate anomalies in voter turnout after 5 p.m. or respond effectively to irregularities.
Undermines Democratic Accountability: Lack of access is viewed as eroding public trust and weakening institutional checks. Eg: Denial of footage suggests the Election Commission is avoiding scrutiny instead of ensuring electoral integrity.
How did the ECI address late voting allegations?
Dismissed Claims of Abnormal Turnout Post 5 PM: The Election Commission of India (ECI) clarified that there was no significant spike in voter turnout after 5 p.m. during the 2024 Maharashtra Assembly elections. Eg: Analysis showed that the voting pattern was consistent with past trends, not unusually high after 5 p.m.
Clarified Nature of Provisional Turnout Data: ECI stated that provisional turnout figures, especially those shared via apps, are based on manual inputs and may contain discrepancies. Eg: App-based data can differ from final turnout due to delays and entry errors during polling day.
Relied on Final Booth-Level Data (Form 17C): The ECI emphasized that accurate data comes from Form 17C, which is compiled after polling ends and includes machine-verified figures. Eg: Final turnout is based on actual vote counts from EVMs and VVPATs, not manual estimates.
What was the recommendation of supreme court?
The Supreme Court, in a 2023 judgment, recommended that the Chief Justice of India (CJI) be part of the selection committee for appointing Election Commissioners, to ensure independence and neutrality. Eg: The Court proposed a 3-member panel comprising the Prime Minister, Leader of Opposition, and CJI to prevent unilateral government control.
Way forward:
Ensure Transparent Electoral Roll Management: Involve all political parties in the electoral roll revision process, with machine-readable public data access for verification and accountability.
Implement Supreme Court’s Recommendations: Reconstitute the Election Commissioner selection panel to include the Chief Justice of India, ensuring impartiality and strengthening public trust in electoral institutions.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India?
LInkage: The “trustworthiness of elections in India” and the challenges faced by the Election Commission of India (ECI) in this regard, which is a core concern behind the need to “tighten the process.” The article highlight various issues that challenge election trustworthiness, such as questions raised by the Leader of the Opposition, Rahul Gandhi, concerning “abnormal increase in voters listed in electoral rolls,” “higher turnout numbers after 5 p.m. on voting day,” and the Centre’s amendment to rules restricting “access to CCTV footage of the polling process.
A new study by the Max Planck Institute for Sustainable Materials has introduced a new method to extract nickel using hydrogen plasma instead of carbon. This cleaner, carbon-free process is being seen as a major breakthrough.
What is the new hydrogen plasma method?
Hydrogen gas is converted into plasma using an electric arc furnace. This plasma reacts with nickel oxide to produce pure nickel and water, instead of carbon dioxide.
The method is particularly effective for laterite ores, which are abundant in tropical regions like Odisha’s Sukinda belt, making it economically viable for India’s low-grade nickel resources.
Single-step metallurgical process using hydrogen plasma
Reducing Agent
Carbon (produces CO₂ as a byproduct)
Hydrogen plasma (produces water as a byproduct)
Environmental Impact
High energy use and CO₂ emissions
Up to 84% lower CO₂ emissions and ~18% more energy-efficient
What is the importance of nickel?
Crucial for Clean Energy Technologies: Nickel is essential in manufacturing lithium-ion batteries, used in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage systems. Eg: High-nickel batteries like NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt) offer higher energy density and longer life for EVs like Tesla or Tata Nexon EV.
Used in Stainless Steel Production: Over 60% of global nickel is used in making stainless steel, providing strength, corrosion resistance, and durability. Eg: Used in construction materials, kitchenware, medical instruments, and infrastructure.
Strategic Industrial Metal: Plays a key role in the aerospace, defence, and electronics industries due to its ability to withstand extreme temperatures. Eg: Used in jet engines, turbines, and superalloys.
Supports Green Infrastructure Goals: Nickel-based technologies support the transition to net-zero and green economy targets. Eg: Solar panels, wind turbines, and grid-scale battery storage use nickel-based components.
Economic and Strategic Resource for Countries: Nations with nickel reserves gain economic and geopolitical advantage, especially in the energy transition era. Eg: India’s reserves in Odisha (Sukinda region) can reduce import dependency and boost Atmanirbhar Bharatgoals.
Where are India’s nickel reserves found?
Odisha – Sukinda Region: Major nickel laterite reserves are located in Sukinda valley, Jajpur district, Odisha. Eg: Found as nickeliferous limonite in chromite mine overburden with 0.4–0.9% nickel content.
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh: Smaller deposits are also reported in parts of Jharkhand (e.g., Singhbhum) and Chhattisgarh, although less exploited.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
National Critical Mineral Mission: Launched in January 2025 with ₹16,300–34,300 crore outlay to enhance domestic exploration, mining, processing, and recycling of minerals like nickel, lithium, and cobalt.
Policy Reforms & Incentives: Amendments to the Mines and Minerals Act and the PLI scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cell batteries promote private sector participation and domestic EV battery manufacturing.
Global Partnerships & Block Acquisition: India is securing overseas mineral assets via the Mineral Security Partnership and Khanij Bidesh India Ltd (KABIL), while also auctioning critical mineral blocks domestically.
Way forward:
Promote R&D and Industrial Scaling of Hydrogen Plasma Technology: India should invest in pilot projects and public-private partnerships to test and scale the hydrogen plasma method domestically, especially in regions like Odisha with abundant low-grade laterite nickel ores.
Strengthen Renewable Energy Integration in Mining Processes: To ensure true carbon neutrality, the electricity used in nickel extraction (especially in electric arc furnaces) must be sourced from renewables like solar, wind, or green hydrogen-based grids.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?
Linkage: Nickel is an important metal used in Electric Vehicles (EVs), which are seen as a cleaner alternative to fossil fuel-powered vehicles. However, the article highlight that while EVs reduce operational emissions, the manufacturing of their lithium-ion batteries, particularly the carbon-intensive extraction of nickel, creates hidden environmental costs.
A new study warns that HKU5 bat coronaviruses, closely related to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are just one mutation away from infecting humans.
Back2Basics: Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)
Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory disease caused by Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) that was first identified in Saudi Arabia in 2012.
It is a species of coronavirus which infects humans, bats, and camels.
About HKU5 Virus and Its Characteristics:
Classification: HKU5 is a bat coronavirus that belongs to the merbecovirus subgenus, which also includes the MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus).
Origin: It was first identified in the Japanese pipistrelle bat in Hong Kong. “HKU” in the name refers to the University of Hong Kong, where the virus was identified.
Virology: HKU5 is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus, structurally similar to other high-risk coronaviruses.
Spread: The virus has been detected in bats across Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, indicating widespread natural reservoirs.
Cell Entry Mechanism: Like SARS-CoV-2, HKU5 uses the ACE2 receptor to infect cells, but current strains bind effectively only to bat ACE2, not human ACE2.
Recent Developments: In 2025, a new variant called HKU5-CoV-2 was isolated in China, and lab studies show it can infect human airway and gut cells, though less efficiently than SARS-CoV-2.
Genetic Similarity: HKU5 is genetically close to both MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, though it has not yet been detected in humans.
Threats and Risks Associated with HKU5 Virus:
Near-Human Infectivity: HKU5 is considered just one mutation away from gaining the ability to infect humans via the ACE2 receptor.
Cross-Species Transmission: Certain HKU5 strains have already jumped into minks, demonstrating its capacity to cross species barriers.
Pandemic Potential: If HKU5 acquires mutations allowing efficient use of human ACE2, it could pose a significant zoonotic pandemic threat.
Relation to Deadly Viruses: Its structural similarity to MERS-CoV, which has a 34% fatality rate, places HKU5 in a high-risk category if human infection occurs.
[UPSC 2015] H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news concerning which one of the following diseases?
Researchers at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) have successfully created India’s first gene-edited sheep—a Kashmir Merino breed.
About Kashmir Merino Sheep:
Overview: Kashmir Merino is a high-quality domestic sheep breed known for its fine wool and ability to thrive in cold climates.
Genetics: It was developed by crossbreeding exotic Merino rams with local sheep breeds in Jammu and Kashmir.
Characteristics: The breed produces soft, dense wool with high fibre quality, making it valuable for the textile industry.
Resilience: It is well-adapted to high-altitude Himalayan conditions, including extreme cold and low oxygen levels.
Significance: It plays a key role in regional livestock economies, contributing significantly to wool and mutton production in Jammu and Kashmir.
Gene-Editing Breakthrough in Kashmir Merino:
Gene Targeted: Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit the myostatin gene, which normally inhibits muscle growth.
Impact: Disabling this gene led to a 30% increase in muscle mass, resulting in higher meat yield and improved economic returns for farmers.
Lab-to-Field Success: The edited embryo was developed in a laboratory and then successfully implanted into a surrogate mother, marking a full-cycle gene-editing achievement.
Biotech Significance: This success represents a major advancement in India’s livestock biotechnology, opening new paths for research in disease resistance, wool quality enhancement, and production of transgenic proteins.
[UPSC 2017] What is the application of somatic cell nuclear transfer technology?
Options: (a) Production of biolarvicides (b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics (c) Reproductive cloning of animals* (d) Production of organisms free of diseases
NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter has captured a spectacular image of Arsia Mons, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes.
About Arsia Mons Volcano:
Location: Arsia Mons is a massive shield volcano on Mars, located in the Tharsis region near the planet’s equator.
Volcanic Chain: It is part of the Tharsis Montes trio, which includes Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons.
Size and Structure: The volcano rises about 20 km (12 miles) in height and spans 450 kilometres in diameter, making it one of the largest in the Solar System.
Summit Caldera: Arsia Mons has an enormous caldera, or summit crater, measuring 120 kilometres across, which is much wider than most Earth volcanoes.
Volcano Type: It is a shield volcano, characterised by gentle slopes formed through successive lava flows.
Surface Features: Signs of lava channels, landslides, and possible ancient glaciers have been observed on its flanks.
Cloud Activity: Known as the cloudiest volcano on Mars, Arsia Mons regularly develops water-ice clouds near its summit, especially at sunrise and during aphelion, when Mars is farthest from the Sun.
Its Significance:
Recent Imaging: A new image released by NASA shows Arsia Mons piercing through morning haze, offering scientists a horizon-level view of Martian terrain.
Scientific Importance: Observations help researchers analyse Martian weather, seasonal climate patterns, and atmospheric behaviour.
Mission Relevance: Arsia Mons plays a key role in understanding Mars’ volcanic history, dust storm formation, and identifying future landing zones.
Exploration Support: Data from this region improve planetary weather models and assist in safe mission planning for upcoming robotic and human missions.
Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter
Launch: Mars Odyssey was launched in 2001, making it NASA’s longest-operating spacecraft at Mars.
Technology: The orbiter captured the Arsia Mons image using the THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System) camera.
Capabilities: This instrument detects both visible and infrared light, allowing scientists to study surface temperatures, mineral compositions, and atmospheric properties.
Unique Technique: To photograph Arsia Mons against the Martian horizon, the orbiter rotated its camera 90 degrees, deviating from its usual ground-facing orientation.
Contributions: It continues to monitor climate changes, study volcanoes and dust storms, and assist with landing site selection.
Support Role: It also serves as a communication relay for other active Mars missions, enabling data transfer and navigation for landers and rovers.
[UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:
The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3
[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.
Linkage:The article highlight that the world needs to “lower its dependence on fossil fuels” because “greenhouse gas emissions are increasing worldwide,” leading to “rising surface temperatures”. The discussion around Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) in the sources is presented as a controversial technology proposed to “directly cool the planet rather than bank on reducing emissions alone” as a means of “reducing the impacts of climate change
Mentor’s Comment: The world needs to rely less on fossil fuels, but progress has been slow because of problems like war, poverty, and rising prices. As a result, greenhouse gas emissions are still going up. To deal with this, some scientists suggest using new technologies to cool the Earth directly, instead of only focusing on cutting emissions. One such method is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI), where tiny particles are sprayed into the upper atmosphere to block sunlight and reduce warming.
Today’s editorial discusses the Stratospheric Aerosol Injection technique, a key topic for GS Paper III (Science, Technology & Environment), highlighting its potential, challenges, and relevance to climate change mitigation efforts.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
A recent study in the journal Earth’s Future shared a new idea that could make SAI cheaper and easier to use, even though many people are still against it.
What was the new idea?
Use of Existing Aircraft: Instead of waiting a decade and spending billions to build special high-altitude planes, the study proposes modifying existing aircraft (like the Boeing 777F) to spray aerosols at lower altitudes.
Low-Altitude Injection in Polar Regions: The study suggests carrying out aerosol injections at lower altitudes (around 13 km) in polar and extratropical regions, where the stratosphere is more easily reachable. This approach is more cost-effective, technically simpler, and can be implemented sooner.
What is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)?
SAI is a proposed method of cooling the planet by injecting tiny reflective particles (aerosols) into the stratosphere. It is inspired by volcanic eruptions, which naturally cool the Earth by spewing particles that reflect sunlight. These aerosols reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, creating a cooling effect.
Why is the spraying of aerosol needed?
To Reflect Sunlight and Cool the Planet: Aerosols (like sulphur dioxide) reflect some of the sun’s rays back into space, reducing the heat reaching Earth’s surface. Eg: The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption released sulphur dioxide, cooling Earth by about 0.5°C for over a year.
To Temporarily Reduce Global Warming Effects: SAI can lower atmospheric temperatures temporarily, helping to reduce severe climate effects like heatwaves, ice melt, and sea-level rise. Eg: A study showed spraying 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide at 13 km altitude could cool the planet by 0.6°C.
To Buy Time for Emissions Reductions and Climate Adaptation: While long-term solutions like clean energy are built, SAI could provide a temporary buffer against extreme climate impacts. Eg: It could delay serious effects like crop failure or habitat loss, allowing time for sustainable reforms.
Why is low-altitude SAI seen as cost-effective?
No Need for Specialized Aircraft: Low-altitude SAI can be conducted using existing aircraft, avoiding the high costs of developing planes that fly above 20 km. Eg: Standard jets like the Boeing 777F can reach stratospheric levels in polar regions, making deployment more affordable.
Technically Less Challenging: Operating at lower altitudes reduces technical complexity, such as extreme temperature and pressure challenges faced at higher elevations. Eg: Modifying existing jets with pressurized tanks is easier than designing new high-altitude aircraft.
Faster Implementation Timeline: It enables quicker deployment, avoiding the 10-year delay and multi-billion dollar investment needed for high-altitude SAI systems. Eg: Using current infrastructure, SAI programs could begin much earlier to address urgent climate risks.
Where is low-altitude injection feasible and why?
Feasible in Polar and Extratropical Regions: In these regions, the stratosphere starts at lower altitudes, making it accessible to standard aircraft. Eg: Over the Arctic or Antarctic, the tropopause (boundary between troposphere and stratosphere) is around 8–13 km, suitable for existing jets.
Infeasible Near the Equator: At equatorial regions, the stratosphere begins at 18 km or higher, which is beyond the reach of most commercial or military jets. Eg: Areas like Indonesia or the Amazon basin would require specially built aircraft for SAI.
Altitude Determines Aerosol Effectiveness: While higher altitude injections last longer in the atmosphere, lower altitude in polar zones allows SAI to be conducted with less cost and effort. Eg: Studies show that even at 13 km altitude in polar spring and summer, SAI can cool the planet by ~0.6°C with 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide.
How does the use of existing aircraft like the Boeing 777F influence the implementation of SAI technology?
Reduces Deployment Costs: Using existing aircraft avoids the high capital expenditure needed to design and build specialized high-altitude jets. Eg: The Boeing 777F, a widely available cargo aircraft, can be adapted for SAI at lower stratospheric levels, cutting costs significantly.
Speeds Up Implementation: Existing jets can be modified and deployed faster, enabling earlier testing and potential use of SAI to address urgent climate risks. Eg: Building high-altitude aircraft may take nearly a decade, but using modified commercial planes could allow operations to start much sooner.
Requires Feasible Technical Modifications: Though not originally built for aerosol spraying, planes like the Boeing 777F can be retrofitted with specialized equipment. Eg: An August 2024 study proposed adding insulated double-walled pressurized tanks to safely carry and release sulphur dioxide.
What are the Risks and Controversies of SAI?
Environmental and Health Side Effects: SAI could lead to acid rain, delayed ozone recovery, and unknown ecological disruptions due to aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Eg: Sulphur dioxide, commonly proposed for SAI, can form sulphuric acid in the atmosphere, harming ecosystems and human health.
Uneven Global Effects: SAI’s cooling impact may not be uniform worldwide, potentially benefiting some regions while worsening droughts, rainfall patterns, or crop yields in others. Eg: Cooling could be stronger in polar regions, while tropical areas, which face the worst climate impacts, may not benefit equally.
Governance and Ethical Concerns: SAI affects the entire planet, raising questions about who decides when, where, and how it’s used. It may lead to geopolitical tensions and misuse. Eg: A single country unilaterally injecting aerosols could trigger international disputes, especially if neighbouring regions suffer unintended consequences.
Way forward:
Establish a Global Governance Framework: International collaboration is essential to regulate research, testing, and potential deployment of SAI, ensuring transparency, accountability, and consent from all affected nations.
Focus on Complementary Climate Strategies: SAI should be treated as a temporary, supplementary tool, not a replacement for emission reduction. Massive investments must continue in renewables, carbon capture, and adaptation strategies.
UPSC has asked questions from themes like BIMSTEC by linking old groupings like SAARC with emerging ones like BIMSTEC. The 2022 question on BIMSTEC vs SAARC is a perfect example. The challenge for aspirants is not the lack of facts—it’s the struggle to connect headlines with deeper foreign policy themes. They remember the Bangkok Vision 2030 or India’s push for maritime links, but they miss the underlying issues like how India’s dominance creates discomfort (see: “India-Centric Perception”) or how BIMSTEC is now trying to fill the void SAARC couldn’t (see: “Overcoming SAARC’s Limitations”).
This article helps you connect the dots. It doesn’t just tell you what happened at the Summit—it shows you why it matters. For example, when it explains how the “BIMSTEC FTA remains stalled despite decades of negotiation,” it reminds you to think about implementation failure—a key theme in UPSC.
The best part? It ties everything back to the syllabus without sounding robotic. Topics like “Human Capital” and “Strategic Role in the Indo-Pacific” aren’t left floating. They’re linked with India’s larger goals, like the Act East policy or Neighbourhood First, and brought down to examples you can actually remember (like “BODHI” training or the Andaman & Nicobar maritime plan).
This article helps you understand BIMSTEC not just as a regional grouping but as a reflection of India’s evolving foreign policy. UPSC often frames questions by comparing older frameworks like SAARC with newer ones like BIMSTEC, as seen in the 2022 paper. The challenge is not recalling facts like the Bangkok Vision 2030 or maritime goals, but connecting them to deeper issues such as India’s dominant role or BIMSTEC’s effort to succeed where SAARC failed.
This article does that clearly. It explains why the stalled BIMSTEC FTA matters and highlights key syllabus themes like human capital and Indo-Pacific strategy. It links them to policies like Act East and Neighbourhood First through real examples like BODHI training and the Andaman maritime plan.
PYQ ANCHORING
GS 2: Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation? [2022]
MICROTHEME: Groupings involving Immediate and Extended neighbours
“The world is watching Asia, and BIMSTEC must step up to the challenge.”
This quote from Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi reflects the rising importance of regional cooperation in Asia.At the 6th BIMSTEC Summit, India took the lead with bold plans like the Bangkok Vision 2030, aiming to make the region more connected and prosperous. The focus was on things like improving maritime shipping and digital payments, plus setting up centers for skill development and disaster management.
India’s push includes a variety of initiatives in trade, security, and culture—but BIMSTEC still faces major challenges. The group has struggled with weak trade ties, political disagreements, and China’s influence.
So, where does BIMSTEC go from here? Can the Summit really make a difference? Is India’s leadership inclusive or too focused on its own interests?Can BIMSTEC fill the gaps left by SAARC and work alongside ASEAN?
6th BIMSTEC Summit: Highlights & India’s Lead
Key Outcomes
Bangkok Vision 2030: Push for a prosperous, resilient, and open BIMSTEC by 2030.
Maritime Transport Pact: Boosts regional shipping links and cuts trade costs.
India-Led Initiatives
Area
Initiatives
Human Capital
BODHI: Skill training at Nalanda University & Forest Research Institute
Institution Building
Centres of Excellence on disaster mgmt, maritime transport, medicine & farming
Trade & Economy
Study on local currency trade; proposed BIMSTEC Chamber of Commerce
Security & Space
India to host 1st Home Ministers’ Meet on cybercrime, terrorism, space ties
Culture & Youth
Young Leaders’ Summit, BIMSTEC Games (2027), Music Festival
Energy & Infra
BIMSTEC Energy Centre (Bengaluru); proposal for regional electric grid
Digital Finance
Pilot on linking India’s UPI with BIMSTEC for inclusive digital payments
India’s Strategy to Reinvigorate BIMSTEC
Focus Area
India’s Approach
Stronger Regional Trade
Fast-tracking the BIMSTEC FTA and easing trade barriers.
Targeted Diplomacy
Deepening ties with Thailand, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka to build trust.
Leading by Example
Proposing visa relaxations and tariff cuts to boost tourism and trade.
Maritime Growth
Developing the Andaman & Nicobar Islands as a strategic hub.
Port & Regulation Reform
Modernizing eastern ports and standardizing maritime laws for better connectivity.
BIMSTEC: Filling the Gaps Left by SAARC and ASEAN
BIMSTEC was set up in 1997 to fill the gaps left by existing groups like SAARC and ASEAN. While these organizations were already active, BIMSTEC was seen as a fresh platform to connect South and Southeast Asia, tackling issues that go beyond regional borders.
Reason
Explanation
Example
Geographic Connectivity
Connects both South and Southeast Asia, focusing on the Bay of Bengal region.
The India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway enhancing connectivity between India and Southeast Asia.
Overcoming SAARC’s Limitations
SAARC struggled with political tensions, especially between India and Pakistan.
BIMSTEC excluded Pakistan, allowing for more focused cooperation among its members.
A Broader Economic Focus
Unlike ASEAN, which primarily focused on economic growth, BIMSTEC also emphasizes social and technical cooperation.
BIMSTEC’s focus on maritime cooperation and the energy sector, like the BIMSTEC Energy Centre in Bengaluru.
Strategic Role in the Indo-Pacific
BIMSTEC provides a platform for India to strengthen its influence in the Indo-Pacific.
India’s ‘Act East’ policy aligns with BIMSTEC’s strategic role, especially in maritime security.
Environmental Collaboration
BIMSTEC addresses regional environmental and disaster management concerns.
BIMSTEC’s Disaster Management Exercises (DMEx) and regional climate resilience efforts.
Underdeveloped Infrastructure
BIMSTEC’s focus on infrastructure projects like roads, ports, and energy is crucial for the region’s growth.
Development of Sittwe Port in Myanmar and regional energy grid projects to boost connectivity.
Avoiding ASEAN’s Overextension
ASEAN’s broader regional focus sometimes limits attention on specific South Asian issues, which BIMSTEC addresses.
BIMSTEC’s tailored approach to regional challenges like cross-border terrorism and maritime security.
BIMSTEC was designed to address the gaps and specific needs that were not fully served by SAARC and ASEAN, offering a more focused, practical framework for regional cooperation.
BIMSTEC: Struggle to Take Off after a 25-Year Journey
BIMSTEC was meant to connect South and Southeast Asia—but 25+ years on, it’s mostly talk, not action. Weak structure, patchy political will, and shallow economic ties keep it from becoming a real force. Here’s a quick look at what’s holding it back, with real-world examples.
Issue Area
Challenge
Examples / Specifics
1. Structural and Institutional Gaps
Lack of Permanent Secretariat
BIMSTEC Secretariat was only established in 2014, 17 years after its formation in 1997.
Even today, it remains under-resourced and lacks institutional memory compared to ASEAN’s Jakarta HQ.
Only 5 summits in 26 years; the 5th Summit was held in 2022 after a 4-year gap.
Weak Legal Framework
No binding charter until 2022, limiting enforceability of decisions.
BIMSTEC Charter adopted only recently; ASEAN had one by its 10th year.
2. Political and Strategic Disconnect
Varying Strategic Interests
Member countries prioritize different regional groupings.
Thailand leans towards ASEAN; Sri Lanka and Bangladesh focus on SAARC and bilateral ties.
India-Centric Perception
Seen as a tool for India’s strategic outreach, not a shared vision.
India’s BBIN projects often bypass BIMSTEC frameworks, breeding scepticism among members.
China’s Shadow
Members are cautious due to Chinese economic influence.
Myanmar and Thailand are deeply integrated into China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
3. Economic and Functional Weaknesses
Poor Trade Integration
Intra-BIMSTEC trade is only ~7% of total trade among members.
BIMSTEC FTA remains stalled despite decades of negotiation.
Lack of Connectivity Projects
Physical and digital connectivity remains fragmented.
Kaladan project delayed for years; Motor Vehicle Agreement yet to be finalized.
Sectoral Overload
Too many sectors without prioritization dilutes focus.
BIMSTEC expanded to 14 sectors; now trying to rationalize to 7 key sectors post-2022.
Influence of Non-Members on BIMSTEC Dynamics
Geopolitical Competition: Countries like China and the US influence BIMSTEC indirectly by strengthening ties with member states through economic or military partnerships, creating a competitive environment. For example, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has drawn countries like Sri Lanka and Myanmar into its orbit, potentially diverting focus from BIMSTEC’s regional cooperation agenda.
Economic Partnerships: Non-member countries, especially from ASEAN and the West, often provide trade opportunities and investments that can overshadow BIMSTEC’s efforts. This can divert the region’s focus from intra-regional cooperation to external partnerships, as seen with India’s “Act East” policy aimed at increasing trade ties with ASEAN.
Strategic Alliances: The presence of external powers in South Asia, particularly the US and China, often influences member states’ policies and alignment. For instance, India’s rivalry with China in the region impacts BIMSTEC’s ability to adopt a unified stance on security and economic issues, as member states might align with or be swayed by external powers’ interests.
Soft Power: Countries like Japan and Australia, which are not part of BIMSTEC but engage with its members, often influence the bloc’s priorities through development assistance, technology transfer, and diplomatic support. Their involvement often shapes regional projects such as infrastructure development or disaster management efforts, impacting BIMSTEC’s project focus.
Security Concerns: External powers with security interests in the region, like the US, influence BIMSTEC by pushing for enhanced counter-terrorism, maritime security, and cybersecurity collaboration, which can align with their broader strategic goals in the Indo-Pacific. This can shift BIMSTEC’s priorities toward these issues, sometimes at the cost of economic or social initiatives.
In essence, while BIMSTEC is designed to foster regional cooperation, external powers play a significant role in shaping its trajectory, sometimes pushing the bloc’s agenda toward broader geopolitical and economic interests.
Way Forward
Leverage Regional Synergies: Harness the diverse resources of BIMSTEC members for optimal regional cooperation, fostering a stronger, more dynamic bloc.
Diplomatic Engagement: Engage in sustained bilateral and multilateral dialogues to prevent political issues, like the Rohingya crisis, from hindering progress. India should maintain strong ties with Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh to ensure stable relations.
Myanmar’s Engagement: India and members must navigate Myanmar’s political instability cautiously until it stabilizes, ensuring balanced cooperation.
Boost Connectivity: Focus on the FTA, coastal shipping, and electricity grid connectivity to drive regional trade. Securing timely project funding and implementation is essential.
India’s Leadership: India must lead by offering funding and supporting initiatives like the Eminent Persons Group (EPG) to create a vision document, addressing power imbalances and facilitating trade.
Future Areas of Focus: Expand focus to new areas like the blue economy, digital economy, and MSME collaborations to foster sustainable growth.
#BACK2BASICS: BIMSTEC
BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) was created in 1997 as a bridge between South and Southeast Asia—offering an alternative to SAARC, which has been paralyzed by regional rivalries (e.g., India-Pakistan tension). It connects countries around the Bay of Bengal to promote trade, security, and connectivity.
BIMSTEC at a Glance
Aspect
Details
Established
1997 via the Bangkok Declaration
Members
7 – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand
Core Goal
Regional cooperation in trade, security, energy, and development
Why BIMSTEC Matters to India
Area
Relevance
Strategic Leverage
Strengthens India’s Act East & Neighbourhood First policies (connects to ASEAN via Thailand & Myanmar)
Economic Ties
Push for BIMSTEC FTA to boost trade and value chains (India is largest economy in group)
BIMSTEC Energy Centre supports regional power grids and clean energy planning
Northeast Access
Projects like Sittwe Port and India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway ease Siliguri Corridor pressure
Geopolitical Reach
Expands India’s Indo-Pacific influence without SAARC roadblocks
What’s Holding BIMSTEC back?
Challenge Type
Problem
Example
Structural
Weak Secretariat, poor funding
Secretariat in Dhaka lacks teeth
Slow Execution
Key deals like FTA & connectivity projects are stuck
FTA talks drag on since 2004
Political Volatility
Domestic instability in members disrupts planning
Coup in Myanmar, crisis in Sri Lanka
Split Focus
Some members favour ASEAN, SAARC or bilateral ties over BIMSTEC
Thailand leans towards ASEAN
Unequal Ownership
Varying commitment levels slow down collective momentum
India leads, others often passive
Funding Gaps
Low financial contribution hampers implementation of big projects
Few large-scale infra projects completed
Why BIMSTEC is a Better Alternative to SAARC?
SAARC Limitations
BIMSTEC Advantages
India-Pakistan tensions hinder cooperation.
Pakistan’s exclusion leads to no political deadlock.
Limited progress on connectivity.
Projects like the BBIN Motor Vehicle Agreement and IMT Highway are active.
Minimal security cooperation.
Enhanced security and maritime cooperation are promoted.
Insufficient trade integration.
Working towards Free Trade Agreement, energy cooperation, and digital economy linkages.
No significant leadership initiative.
India takes a proactive leadership role.
SMASH MAINS MOCK DROP
BIMSTEC as a regional grouping holds strategic and economic importance for South Asia and Southeast Asia. Analyze the challenges and opportunities faced by BIMSTEC in enhancing regional cooperation.
India’s main financial regulators — the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) — have, for the first time, created clear step-by-step procedures for how they will create and update their rules.
What procedural reforms have the RBI and SEBI recently introduced in regulation-making?
Mandatory Public Consultation: Both RBI and SEBI now require a 21-day window for public feedback before finalizing regulations. Eg: When SEBI proposes changes to investment guidelines, stakeholders can submit suggestions during this consultation period.
Introduction of Impact Analysis and Regulatory Objectives: RBI must conduct an impact analysis to assess the effect of new regulations. SEBI must state the regulatory intent and objectives behind any proposed rule. Eg: Before introducing digital lending norms, RBI must assess how it affects NBFCs and consumers.
Periodic Review of Existing Regulations: Both regulators are now required to periodically review existing laws to ensure relevance and effectiveness. E.g.:SEBI may revisit earlier mutual fund rules to assess if they align with current market dynamics.
Why is identifying economic rationale important for regulatory interventions?
Targets Actual Market Failures: Ensures that regulations are introduced to solve real economic issues, not just perceived ones. Eg: RBI introducing regulations on digital lending platforms to tackle predatory lending practices.
Improves Resource Allocation: Helps in the efficient use of regulatory capacity and government resources by focusing only where intervention is necessary. Eg: SEBI focusing surveillance on high-risk investment products rather than low-risk ones.
Enables Evidence-Based Policy Making: Economic rationale demands data-backed decision-making, leading to more robust and defensible policies. Eg: Mandating minimum capital buffers after analysing risk exposure in banks post-2008 crisis.
Strengthens Cost-Benefit Analysis: Clarifies whether the expected benefits outweigh the compliance and administrative costs. Eg: Before enforcing stricter disclosure norms, SEBI can evaluate if the benefits to investors justify the burden on companies.
Increases Public and Stakeholder Trust: When the rationale is transparent, it builds confidence in the regulator’s objectivity and fairness. Eg: Clearly stating economic reasoning behind banning front-running in trading enhances credibility.
How do international practices like those in the US and EU guide regulatory impact assessment?
Mandatory Cost-Benefit Analysis: US regulators must evaluate the economic impact of any regulation before adoption to ensure benefits outweigh costs. Eg: The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) reviews federal regulations to minimize economic burdens.
Problem Identification and Alternatives Assessment: The EU’s Better Regulation Framework requires identifying the core problem, evaluating alternative policy options, and selecting the most effective one. Eg: EU energy efficiency regulations involved assessing multiple alternatives before finalizing appliance labeling norms.
Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks: Both the US and EU emphasize post-implementation reviews to check if regulations achieve intended goals. Eg: The EU conducts ex-post evaluations as part of its regulatory cycle to ensure continuous improvement.
When should regulations be reviewed and why?
At Pre-defined and Regular Intervals: Regulations should be reviewed periodically (e.g., every 3 years) to assess continued relevance. Eg: The IFSCA mandates review of its regulations every 3 years to align with changing market needs.
After Significant Economic or Sectoral Changes: Major changes like market failures, technological advancements, or crises should trigger a regulatory review. Eg: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a re-evaluation of financial sector norms to support liquidity and credit flow.
To Evaluate Effectiveness and Stakeholder Impact: Reviews help assess whether regulations have achieved their intended goals and consider public feedback. Eg: SEBI may review listing regulations based on feedback from companies and investors to enhance market transparency.
Who can ensure uniform regulatory standards in India?
Parliament through Enactment of a Common Law: Parliament can introduce a standardised law (similar to the U.S. Administrative Procedure Act) to ensure consistent regulatory practices like impact assessments, public consultations, and periodic reviews across all regulators. Eg: A central Regulation-Making Procedure Act could mandate that all financial regulators follow uniform protocols.
Government Agencies Issuing Common Guidelines: The Central Government or NITI Aayog can issue model guidelines or frameworks to harmonise regulation-making procedures among regulators. Eg: Like the UK and Canada, India can adopt unified regulatory guidelines to promote transparency and accountability across SEBI, RBI, IFSCA, etc.
Way forward:
Enact a Unified Regulatory Procedure Law: Parliament should legislate a comprehensive framework for regulation-making that mandates impact analysis, public consultation, and periodic review across all regulators to ensure transparency and consistency.
Strengthen Institutional Capacity and Oversight: Build the capacity of regulatory bodies through training, digital tools, and staffing, and set up an independent oversight mechanism to monitor compliance with procedural norms and ensure accountability.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] “Citizens’ Charter is an ideal instrument of organizational transparency and accountability, but it has its own limitations. Identify the limitations and suggest measures for greater effectiveness or the Citizens Charter.”
Linkage: The theme of “consultative regulation-making that should go further” as discussed in “Crafting India’s Regulatory Future”. In the article primarily discusses financial regulators and the PYQ addresses the Citizens’ Charter, both embody the fundamental principle of existing governance mechanisms needing to evolve and be strengthened to achieve their stated objectives of transparency, accountability, and more effective public engagement, moving beyond a “nascent stage” or “welcome start” to truly “go further.”
After Operation Sindoor, India’s military strike against Pakistan in May, there has been a lot of talk about strategy — but it has also given a strong boost to India’s defence sector, especially to private companies and small businesses (MSMEs) involved in defence manufacturing.
What impact did Operation Sindoor have on the performance of defence company stocks?
Sharp Rise in Defence Stocks: Defence company stocks surged by nearly 21% in the week when India conducted Operation Sindoor, significantly outperforming the broader market’s 3.1% rise in the Nifty50 index during the same period.
Sustained Positive Momentum: In the week following Operation Sindoor, defence stocks continued to rise by 5.4%, whereas the Nifty50 index actually declined by 0.5%, showing sustained investor confidence in the defence sector.
Reversal of Previous Underperformance: Before Operation Sindoor, defence stocks were lagging behind the top 50 companies on the National Stock Exchange, but the operation acted as a catalyst that boosted their performance substantially.
Why is the growth in India’s defence production and exports significant?
Enhances Self-Reliance: The growth signals India’s increasing capability to produce defence equipment domestically, reducing dependence on imports. Eg, defence production reached a record ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24, showing strong progress in indigenous manufacturing.
Boosts Economic and Strategic Strength: Rising defence exports, which have doubled since FY20 and crossed ₹20,000 crore in recent years, help strengthen India’s global defence market presence and contribute to economic growth. The government’s export target of ₹30,000 crore for the current fiscal reflects this ambition.
Encourages Innovation and Industry Growth: Sustained double-digit growth since FY22 encourages innovation and investment in defence technology, benefiting both public and private sectors.
How have private companies and MSMEs contributed to India’s defence sector in recent years?
Growing Share in Defence Production: Private defence companies increased their share of total defence production from about 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, showing their expanding role in the sector. Eg, companies like Paras Defence and Space Technologies have become prominent players.
Leading Role in Defence Exports: Private firms now account for the majority share of defence exports due to export authorisations, helping India expand its footprint in the global defence market. Eg, several private companies contribute to exports of small arms and protective gear.
MSMEs as Key Component Suppliers: MSMEs supply crucial components to the defence industry, with government procurement from MSMEs doubling the target to ₹13,000 crore in FY25. Eg, MSMEs provided goods worth around ₹3,000 crore between FY18 and FY20, with larger orders thereafter.
When did defence production begin steady growth?
Defence production contracted by 2.5% in FY20 (pre-pandemic).
Since FY22, defence production has been seeing consistent double-digit growth.
The growth momentum continues with production touching nearly ₹90,000 crore by December 2024 against a target of ₹1.6 lakh crore for FY25.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
Promoting Domestic Manufacturing: The government has set ambitious targets to boost indigenous defence production, encouraging self-reliance. Eg, defence production crossed ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24 and is targeted at ₹1.6 lakh crore in FY25.
Supporting MSMEs through Procurement: Mandatory public procurement targets have been set to ensure MSMEs receive steady orders and support. Eg, goods worth ₹13,000 crore were procured from MSMEs in FY25, more than double the target.
Encouraging Private Sector Participation: Policies have facilitated the growing involvement of private companies in defence production and exports. Eg, private companies increased their production share from 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, and dominate defence exports.
Way forward:
Enhance Technology Upgradation and Innovation: Invest more in R&D and foster collaboration between public and private sectors to develop cutting-edge defence technologies, ensuring global competitiveness and self-reliance.
Strengthen MSME Integration and Export Support: Expand financial and policy support to MSMEs for scaling up production capacity and quality, and create dedicated export facilitation mechanisms to boost India’s defence exports further.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] Defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. What influence this is expected to have on Indian defence and economy in the short and long run?
Linkage: Recent data from the article clearly demonstrates a significant “fillip” in India’s defence production, directly linked with the “nascent stage” described in the 2014 PYQ. This 2014 question is highly relevant as it highlights a past perception that “defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. In this articel, the discussions on the efficacy and confidence in India’s home-grown defence capabilities have increased. Following “Operation Sindoor,” defence stocks of 18 companies on the Nifty Defence Index rose by almost 21% in a week in May, significantly outperforming the Nifty50 index.
In a major achievement for adult education in India, Mizoram and Goa have declared themselves “fully literate” under the ULLAS Scheme (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society).
What does “Fully Literate” mean under ULLAS?
As per the Ministry of Education (August 2024):
A person is literate if they can read, write, and compute with comprehension, including essential life skills.
A state is considered fully literate if it achieves 95% literacy or more.
This aligns with the National Education Policy, 2020 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target of achieving universal youth and adult literacy by 2030.
About the ULLAS Scheme:
Launch: It is a centrally sponsoredscheme launched in 2022.
Vision: It is based on the spirit of ‘Kartvya Bodh’ (DUTY) and is being implemented through volunteerism.
Official Name: It is formally known as the New India Literacy Programme and is being implemented over a five-year period (2022–2027).
Core Objective: The scheme aims to provide foundational literacy and numeracy to 5 crore non-literate individuals aged 15 years and above.
Key Learning Components:
Beyond Basics: In addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic, learners are taught critical life skills, such as financial literacy and digital literacy.
Beneficiary Identification: Individuals are identified through door-to-door surveys conducted by schools and local officials across states and UTs.
Volunteer Teaching Model: Teaching is provided by volunteers, including school and college students, teacher trainees, and community members.
Learning Support and Certification:
Learning Materials: The NCERT develops the core content, which is translated and adapted into 22 languages of India by state authorities.
Digital and Offline Modes: A mobile app supports the learning process, though offline teaching is also included for inclusive access.
Assessment Process: Learners appear for the Functional Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT) — a 150-mark exam in multiple languages.
Certification: Those who pass the FLNAT are certified by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) for achieving basic literacy and numeracy.
Key Achievements on Full Literacy under ULLAS:
State Declarations:
Ladakh: First region to be declared fully literate (June 2024)
Goa: Declared fully literate with 99.72% literacy
Mizoram: Declared fully literate with 98.2% literacy
Performance Insights:
100% pass rate in Goa and Tamil Nadu
Over 95% in Punjab, Assam, UP
Women-majority participation in several states (over 70% in Mizoram, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu, etc.)
Historical Context: ULLAS Scheme builds on earlier adult literacy programs such as:
Saakshar Bharat (2009–2018)
National Literacy Mission (1988–2009)
National Adult Education Programme (1970s–1980s)
[UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements: As per 2001 Census:
1. the two States with the lowest sex ratio are Haryana and Punjab. 2. the two States with the lowest population per sq. km of area are Meghalaya and Mizoram. 3. Kerala has both the highest literacy rate and sex ratio.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 3 only* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 3
IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.
About the Khadir Island Sites:
Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.
Key Findings:
Archaeological Significance:
Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
Diet and Food Practices:
Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
Lifestyle and Settlement:
These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
Tool Use:
Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
Trade and Cultural Links:
Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:
Historical place : Well known for
1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines
2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*
According to a new World Bank report, extreme poverty in India has fallen from 27.1% in 2011–12 to just 5.3% in 2022–23, based on a revised international poverty line.
Understanding World Bank’s Poverty Lines:
The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than a fixed amount per person per day, adjusted using Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) to account for inflation and cost of living.
PPP compares currencies by showing how much money is needed in different countries to buy the same goods. It helps measure real cost of living and economic strength.
Previous thresholds:
$1.90 per day (2011 PPP)
$2.15 per day (2017 PPP)
Revised in June 2025:
Low-income countries: $3 per day
Lower middle-income countries (LMIC): $4.20 per day (up from $3.65)
Upper middle-income countries: $8.40 per day (up from $6.85)
Why it matters: These new thresholds help track progress in poverty reduction and align better with today’s economic conditions.
India’s Progress and Challenges:
Reduction in Poverty:
At the $3/day level, poverty dropped from 27.1% (2011–12) to 5.3% (2022–23).
At the $2.15/day level, poverty fell from 16.2% to 2.3%, lifting 171 million people.
At the $4.20/day level, poverty declined from 61.8% to 28.1%, benefiting 378 million people.
Rural-Urban Trends:
Rural poverty dropped from 69% to 32.5%, and urban poverty from 43.5% to 17.2%.
The rural-urban gap narrowed from 25 to 15 percentage points.
Inequality Measures:
Consumption inequality improved (Gini fell from 28.8 to 25.5).
Income inequality, however, worsened (Gini rose from 52 to 62).
Employment Trends:
Since 2021–22, employment growth has outpaced the working-age population.
Urban unemployment dropped to 6.6%, the lowest since 2017–18, but youth unemployment remains high at 13.3%, and 29% among graduates.
State-Level Dynamics:
UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and MP contributed to 65% of the extreme poor (2011–12) and now represent 54% of the remaining poor.
Multidimensional Poverty:
Declined significantly from 53.8% in 2005–06 to 15.5% in 2022–23, reflecting progress in health, education, and living standards.
[UPSC 2019] In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because:
Options: (a) poverty rates vary from State to State (b) price levels vary from State to State* (c) Gross State Product varies from State to State (d) quality of public distribution varies from State to State
IIT Kharagpur has made a web app called Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM) to help people choose travel routes that are not just fast but also have cleaner air and better energy use.
About DRUM:
Purpose: It is a navigation tool that prioritises air quality and energy efficiency, offering a greener alternative to traditional mapping apps.
Data Usage: DRUM uses real-time data on air pollution and traffic conditions to recommend optimal routes.
Routing Logic: DRUM applies a rank-based elimination method that prioritizes time, followed by distance, pollution exposure, and energy use.
Technical Tools: The app uses GraphHopper for route generation and Mapbox for live traffic updates.
Route Options: Users can choose from 5 routes — shortest, fastest, least pollution (LEAP), least energy use (LECR), and a balanced suggested route.
Live Updates: It retrieves real-time route data when a query is entered, not through scheduled updates.
Performance: In Delhi trials, the LEAP route cut pollution exposure by over 50%, and the LECR route reduced energy use by up to 28%.
Non-Motorized Inclusion: DRUM will expand to serve cyclists, pedestrians, and other non-motorized users.
Predictive Upgrade: DRUM 2.0, currently in development, will use machine learning to forecast pollution and traffic and recommend best routes and departure times.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:
I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None
In a groundbreaking discovery, an international team of nuclear physicists from Finland has measured the proton emission and half-life of 188Astatine (188At)—the heaviest proton-emitting isotope ever observed.
What is Proton Emission?
Atomic Structure: Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
Radioactive Decay: When atoms are unstable, they become stable by emitting particles through a process called radioactive decay.
Common Emissions: Most atoms emit alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays during decay.
Rare Emission: In very rare cases, an atom can emit a proton, a process known as proton emission.
Conditions for Emission: Proton emission occurs only in proton-rich nuclei that lie on the extreme edge of nuclear stability.
Detection Difficulty: These atoms are extremely hard to create in laboratories and usually exist for less than a second, making them hard to study.
Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:
What is Astatine: Astatine (At) is a radioactive, halogenous element with atomic number 85, belonging to the halogen family (Group 17) on the periodic table. It’s a rarest natural element on Earth, not naturally occurring in significant quantities due to its short half-life.
Research Breakthrough: Scientists from Finland, India, and Portugal jointly studied a rare isotope called 188-Astatine.
Method: The atom was made by bombarding a silver target with strontium ions in a high-powered accelerator.
Observed Event: After its formation, 188-Astatine emitted a proton and transformed into polonium within 190 microseconds.
Role of Indian Scientists: Experts from IIT Roorkee used computer simulations to confirm the event and revealed that the atom’s shape resembled a watermelon, elongated and stretched.
Significance of the Discovery:
Scientific First: This was the first recorded instance of proton emission from astatine, a rare and heavy element.
Understanding Atomic Limits: The discovery helps scientists learn how unstable atoms behave and where the proton-holding limits of atomic nuclei lie.
Contribution to Nuclear Science: It enhances our understanding of element formation in extreme environments like stars and nuclear reactors.
Future Implications: Such discoveries can contribute to medical advances, especially in developing radioactive materials for cancer treatment.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:
1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
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