Subject: Basic Sciences

Central Idea

• India is set to significantly enhance its supercomputing capabilities by installing an 18-petaflop system this year.
• This development aims to improve complex mathematical calculations, particularly in weather forecasting, by providing greater processing power and accuracy.

Understanding Supercomputers

• A supercomputer is a high-performance computer capable of processing massive amounts of data at extraordinary speeds.
• Performance is measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) rather than million instructions per second (MIPS).
• Supercomputers have the ability to perform trillions (peta) of FLOPS.

India’s Journey in Supercomputing

• India’s supercomputing journey began in the late 1980s when the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) was established in response to technology embargoes imposed by the United States.
• Since then, India has steadily progressed, unveiling the PARAM 800 in 1991, which was the world’s second-fastest supercomputer at the time.
• The National Supercomputing Mission (NSM), launched in 2015 with a budget of ₹4,500 crore, has been instrumental in propelling India’s supercomputing capabilities.
• The mission aims to create a network of supercomputers across academic and research institutions in the country, supporting academia, researchers, MSMEs, and startups.

Current Supercomputing Infrastructure

• India’s most powerful civilian supercomputers, Pratyush and Mihir, have a combined capacity of 6.8 petaflops.
• Pratyush is located at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) in Pune, while Mihir is housed at the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) in Noida.
• These supercomputers became operational in 2018 after an investment of ₹438 crore.
• Both institutions are affiliated with the MoES.

Acquisition of New Supercomputers

• The new supercomputers, sourced from French corporation ATOS, were procured as part of a deal signed between the Indian and French governments in December 2018.
• The Government aims to acquire high-performance computers worth ₹4,500 crore by 2025, with an estimated cost of ₹900 crore for the new earth-sciences Ministry computers.

Enhanced Capabilities and Future Outlook

• Upgrading the supercomputing systems every 4-5 years is essential to improve performance.
• The new system will enhance resolution from the current 12×12 km to 6×6 km, providing greater clarity and accuracy in local weather forecasts.
• The ultimate goal is to represent areas using 1 km-square grids, enabling the prediction of rapidly evolving weather phenomena such as cloudbursts.
• The current fastest high-performance computing system in the world is the Frontier-Cray system at Oakridge National Laboratory in the United States, with a peak speed of 1 exa-flop (equivalent to 1,000 petaflops).

Way forward

To further enhance India’s supercomputing capabilities and maintain technological advancements, the following steps can be considered:

• Continued investment in research and development to stay at the forefront of supercomputing technology.
• Collaboration with international partners and organizations to leverage global expertise.
• Encouraging academia, researchers, MSMEs, and startups to utilize the supercomputing infrastructure for scientific breakthroughs and innovation.
• Strengthening the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) by expanding its network and providing adequate resources.
• Regularly upgrading supercomputing systems to keep up with evolving computational demands and maintain competitiveness on a global scale.

Also in news

Recently, India’s AI Supercomputer ‘AIRAWAT’ has been ranked at No. 75 in the world at the International Supercomputing Conference (ISC 2023) in Germany.

About Airawat

• The supercomputer ‘AIRAWAT’ has recently been named in the 61st edition of the Top 500 Global Supercomputing List.
• Installed at C-DAC in Pune, ‘AIRAWAT’ is an AI supercomputer implemented under the National Program on AI by the Government of India.
• The manufacturer of ‘AIRAWAT’ is Netweb Technologies.
• ‘AIRAWAT’ PSAI stands out as India’s largest and fastest AI supercomputing system, boasting an impressive speed of 13,170 teraflops.

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Central Idea

• Comb jellies, or ctenophores, are marine animals with jelly-like bodies and iridescent combs.
• They represent an ancient animal lineage and have a distinct nervous system.
• A recent study published in Science examined the comb jelly nervous system and made surprising discoveries.

What are Comb Jellies?

• Comb jellies, also known as ctenophores, are marine animals that belong to the phylum Ctenophora. They are fascinating creatures with a unique and delicate appearance.
• Despite their name, comb jellies are not actually true jellyfish.
• They have a gelatinous, transparent body that is often luminescent and adorned with rows of cilia, or comb-like structures, which give them their characteristic shimmering appearance.

Findings of the new study

• The researchers aimed to investigate how nerve net neurons in comb jellies connect.
• Contrary to expectations, synapses (junctions between neurons) were absent in the nerve net.
• Instead, nerve-net neurons were continuously connected by a single plasma membrane.

Significance of ctenophores

• In the 1950s, electron microscopy confirmed the separate-cell nature of neurons connected by synapses.
• Ctenophores challenge this notion by having a syncytial nerve net, as observed in the new study.
• Ctenophores attracted attention due to their status as a potential early animal lineage.
• Whole-genome sequencing studies supported the theory that ctenophores branched off early in animal evolution.

Evolution of ctenophore nervous systems

• The evolution of ctenophore nervous systems remains unclear to biologists.
• Leonid Moroz proposed a controversial theory of independent nervous system evolution in ctenophores and other animals.
• Ctenophores exhibit a unique nervous system lacking classical neurotransmitter pathways and common neuronal genes.
• The absence of muscle-based movement and reliance on cilia might have driven the evolution of a different signal conduction system.

Questions for further research

• Researchers aim to study the development of nerve net neurons in ctenophores.
• They seek to determine if adult ctenophores retain syncytial nerve nets or develop synapses.
• The uniqueness of ctenophore nervous systems provides valuable insights into the evolution of the nervous system.
• Comparative analyses of unique animal systems like ctenophores aid in understanding neuronal function and treating disorders.

Conclusion

• Understanding the functional and evolutionary significance of syncytial nerve net neurons in ctenophores requires further research.
• This study serves as a crucial foundation for investigating the evolution of nervous systems in animals.
• Comparative studies on small marine creatures like ctenophores offer insights into the fundamental principles of brain function.

Key Terminologies Ctenophores: Another term for comb jellies, referring to marine animals belonging to the phylum Ctenophora. Nerve Net: The diffuse nervous system found in comb jellies, composed of interconnected neurons. Synapses: Junctions between neurons that allow for communication and transmission of signals in most animals, including humans. Plasma Membrane: The outer membrane of a cell that separates its internal components from the external environment. Neurotransmitter Pathways: The specific chemical signals used by neurons to communicate with each other in the nervous system. Syncytial Nerve Net Neurons: Neurons within the nerve net of comb jellies that are interconnected without the presence of synapses. Colloblasts: Specialized cells in comb jellies used for capturing prey by producing adhesive substances.

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Central Idea

• The human nose has historical and cultural importance beyond its practical functions.
• Different societies have their own standards of beauty related to nose shape and proportion.
• The nose is significant in art, literature, and remnants of ancient civilizations.

Who were the Neanderthals?

	Description
Time Period	Lived approximately 400,000 to 40,000 years ago during the Middle Paleolithic and Late Pleistocene epochs
Physical Appearance	Robust build with a barrel-shaped chest, shorter limbs, and distinctive anatomical features such as pronounced brow ridges and a projecting mid-face
Tools and Technology	Skilled toolmakers who used a variety of tools made from stone, bone, and antler
Culture and Behavior	Complex social structures and likely lived in small groups or bands, exhibited advanced hunting techniques, made use of fire, and engaged in symbolic expressions through personal ornamentation and cave art
Adaptation to Environments	Adapted to cold and temperate environments, had robust bodies, large noses, and other physiological characteristics were advantageous for survival in harsh conditions
Interactions with Modern Humans	Interbred with early modern humans who migrated out of Africa. As a result, some individuals today carry a small percentage of Neanderthal DNA in their genomes, particularly in non-African populations
Extinction	Around 40,000 years ago
Scientific Significance	Closest extinct relatives, and understanding their anatomy, behavior, and interactions with modern humans helps reconstruct our shared past

Genetic association study on Human Nose

• A recent study used 2D images and automated measurements of facial landmarks to conduct a genetic association study.
• The study involved over 6,000 Latin American individuals and identified 42 new genetic loci associated with the human nose.
• Some of these loci, including 1q32.3, were replicated in other populations like Asians, Europeans, and Africans.

Role of Neanderthal Genes and ATF3 Gene

• The genetic locus 1q32.3, associated with midface height, has contributions from Neanderthals.
• The ATF3 gene, located in this locus, is regulated by FOXL2, which is involved in skull and face development.
• Changes in nose shape may have evolutionary implications, helping humans adapt to different climates.

Neanderthal Genomes and Human Traits

• Genomic loci from Neanderthals and Denisovans have influenced various traits and diseases in modern humans.
• Evidence suggests these genomic contributions affect pathogen response, skin conditions, blood conditions, cancers, and mental health.
• Understanding the genetic interactions between archaic and modern human genomes aids in comprehending genetic diversity and adaptability.

Human Origins and Interbreeding

• Human migrations out of Africa, interbreeding with Neanderthals and Denisovans, and extinct archaic hominids have shaped human traits.
• Recent studies highlight that early humans diverged in Africa from multiple ancestral roots, with varying degrees of genetic components from archaic humans in different populations.

Implications and Future Research

• Studying the interbreeding event and its consequences deepens our understanding of genetic heritage.
• The knowledge gained could lead to new avenues for disease study, treatment, and appreciation of human genetic diversity.
• Continued research on the interplay between archaic and modern human genomes is an exciting frontier in genomics.

 

Key Terminologies Loci/Locus: The position of a specific gene on a chromosome. Introgression: The transfer of genetic information between different species or populations through interbreeding. Neanderthals: Archaic hominids closely related to modern humans, believed to have interbred with early humans. Denisovans: A subspecies of archaic humans who lived until around 30,000 years ago. Genomic Loci: Specific locations on chromosomes associated with certain traits or characteristics.

 

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Central Idea: The article introduces the concept of quantum biology, which explores the influence of quantum effects on living systems.

Nature and Quantum Mechanics

• Quantum effects refer to phenomena that occur between atoms and molecules that cannot be explained by classical physics.
• Quantum mechanics, which governs the behavior of objects at atomic scales, differs from classical mechanics, leading to counterintuitive phenomena like particle tunnelling and superposition.

Quantumness in Biology

• Quantum biology is an emerging field that explores the role of quantum mechanics in biological processes and living systems.
• It investigates how quantum phenomena and effects, which typically occur at atomic and subatomic scales, influence and contribute to the functioning and behavior of biological systems.
• It aims to uncover and understand the quantum nature of biological molecules, processes, and interactions.
• It seeks to study how quantum mechanics may impact various biological phenomena such as photosynthesis, enzyme reactions, and navigation in birds.

Evidence of Quantum Effects in Biology

• Research on chemical reactions in biomolecules like proteins and genetic material suggests the influence of quantum effects.
• Nanoscopic quantum effects can drive macroscopic physiological processes, including enzyme activity, sensing magnetic fields, cell metabolism, and electron transport.

Studying Quantum Biology

• Studying quantum effects in biology requires tools to measure short time scales, small length scales, and subtle differences in quantum states.
• Researchers can apply tailored magnetic fields to control the spins of electrons, influencing physiological processes that respond to magnetic fields.

Potential applications

• Therapeutic devices: Understanding and fine-tuning quantum properties in nature could lead to non-invasive, remotely controlled therapeutic devices accessible through mobile phones.
• Bio-manufacturing: Electromagnetic treatments based on quantum principles could be used for disease prevention and treatment, such as brain tumors, as well as in bio-manufacturing.

Scope quantum biology’ study

• Multi-disciplinary: Quantum biology is an interdisciplinary field that brings together researchers from various disciplines, including quantum physics, biophysics, medicine, chemistry, and biology.
• Many applications: Collaboration and cross-disciplinary research are crucial for advancing quantum biology and unlocking its transformative potential in biology, medicine, and technology.

 

Facts for Prelims Superposition: A quantum phenomenon where particles can exist in multiple states simultaneously until measured or observed, in contrast to classical physics where objects have definite properties. Spins: Quantum properties of electrons that define their interaction with magnetic fields, analogous to the way charge defines their interaction with electric fields. Deterministic Codebook: A comprehensive understanding of the relationship between quantum causes and physiological outcomes, providing a guide for mapping quantum phenomena to specific biological effects.

 

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