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Subject: Basic Sciences

  • Anti-methanogenic feed supplement ‘Harit Dhara’

    An Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institute has developed an anti-methanogenic feed supplement ‘Harit Dhara’.

    Harit Dhara

    • Harit Dhara is prepared using condensed and hydrolysable tannin-rich plant-based sources abundantly available in the country.
    • It changes the composition of the volatile fatty acids that are the end-products of rumen fermentation (along with hydrogen and CO2).
    • It roughly costs Rs 6/kg and it is to be fed only to animals aged above three months having fully functional rumen.
    • When given to bovines and sheep, it not only cuts down their methane emissions by 17-20%.
    • It also results in higher milk production and body weight gain.

    Why it is significant?

    • Belching cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats in India emit an estimated 9.25 million tonnes (mt) to 14.2 mt of methane annually, out of a global total of 90 mt-plus from livestock.
    • And given methane’s global warming potential – 25 times of carbon dioxide (CO2) over 100 years, making it a more potent greenhouse gas – that’s cause for concern.
    • An average lactating cow or buffalo in India emits around 200 litres of methane per day, while it is 85-95 litres for young growing heifers and 20-25 litres for adult sheep.
    • Feeding Harit Dhara can reduce these by a fifth.

    How is methane produced by the cattles?

    • Methane is produced by animals having rumen, the first of their four stomachs where the plant material they eat – cellulose, fibre, starch and sugars – gets fermented or broken down by microorganisms prior to further digestion and nutrient absorption.
    • Carbohydrate fermentation leads to the production of CO2 and hydrogen.
    • These are used as substrate by archaea – microbes in the rumen with structure similar to bacteria – to produce methane, which the animals then expel through burping.
    • Harit Dhara acts by decreasing the population of protozoa microbes in the rumen, responsible for hydrogen production and making it available to the archaea for reduction of CO2 to methane.
    • Tropical plants containing tannins – bitter and astringent chemical compounds – are known to suppress or remove protozoa from the rumen.

    Need for India

    • The 2019 Livestock Census showed India’s cattle population at 193.46 million, along with 109.85 million buffaloes, 148.88 million goats and 74.26 million sheep.
    • Being largely fed on agricultural residues – wheat/paddy straw and maize, sorghum or bajra stover – ruminants in India tend to produce 50-100% higher methane than their industrialized country counterparts.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.Consider the following:

    1. Carbon monoxide
    2. Methane
    3. Ozone
    4. Sulphur dioxide

    Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 1 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Back2Basics: CO2 equivalents

    • Each greenhouse gas (GHG) has a different global warming potential (GWP) and persists for a different length of time in the atmosphere.
    • The three main greenhouse gases (along with water vapour) and their 100-year global warming potential (GWP) compared to carbon dioxide are:

    1 x – carbon dioxide (CO2)

    25 x – methane (CH4) – I.e. Releasing 1 kg of CH4into the atmosphere is about equivalent to releasing 25 kg of CO2

    298 x – nitrous oxide (N2O)

    • Water vapour is not considered to be a cause of man-made global warming because it does not persist in the atmosphere for more than a few days.
    • There are other greenhouse gases which have far greater global warming potential (GWP) but are much less prevalent. These are sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
    • There are a wide variety of uses for SF6, HFCs, and PFCs but they have been most commonly used as refrigerants and for fire suppression.
    • Many of these compounds also have a depleting effect on ozone in the upper atmosphere.

  • First-ever genetically modified rubber planted in Assam

    A Rubber Board research farm on the outskirts of Guwahati now sports the world’s first genetically modified (GM) rubber plant tailored for the climatic conditions in the Northeast.

    GM rubber

    • The GM rubber has additional copies of the gene MnSOD, or manganese-containing superoxide dismutase, inserted in the plant.
    • The plant was developed at the Kerala-based Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII).
    • It is expected to tide over the severe cold conditions during winter — a major factor affecting the growth of young rubber plants in the region.

    Why need GM rubber?

    • Natural rubber is a native of warm humid Amazon forests and is not naturally suited for the colder conditions in the Northeast, which is one of the largest producers of rubber in India.
    • Growth of young rubber plants remains suspended during the winter months, which are also characterized by progressive drying of the soil.
    • This is the reason for the long immaturity period of this crop in the region.

    What does MnSOD gene offer?

    • The MnSOD gene has the ability to protect plants from the adverse effects of severe environmental stresses such as cold and drought.
    • Laboratory studies conducted at the RRII showed the GM rubber plants overexpressed the MnSOD gene as expected, offering protection to the cells.
    • The plant is thus expected to establish well and grow fast in the region.
    • There was no risk of genes flowing from the GM rubber into any other native species, a concern often raised by environmental groups against GM plants in general.

  • BT Cotton adoption in Punjab has resulted in net economic, environmental benefits

    Amid the perpetual debate surrounding BT cotton’s positive and negative impacts, a recent study has said its adoption in Punjab in the past over a decade has resulted in net economic and environmental benefits.

    Background

    • BT (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton has been commercially grown in India for the past 19 years.
    • The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) approved the release of BT cotton for commercial cultivation in 2002 in western and southern parts of the country.
    • In Punjab, BT cotton was released for cultivation in 2005.
    • Before the release, it was adopted by 72% farmers on 22% of the cotton area. However, a lot of questions have been raised recently on its impact.

    BT cotton in India

    • BT cotton is a genetically modified organism (GMO) or genetically modified pest resistant plant cotton variety, which produces an insecticide to combat bollworm.
    • Strains of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produce over 200 different BT toxins, each harmful to different insects.
    • Most notably, BT toxins are insecticidal to the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, cotton bollworms and flies but are harmless to other forms of life.
    • In 2002, a joint venture between Monsanto and Mahyco introduced BT cotton to India.
    • In 2011, India grew the largest GM cotton crop at 10.6 million hectares.

    Issues with BT cotton

    • In India, BT cotton has been enveloped in controversies due to its supposed failure to reduce the need for pesticides and increase yield.
    • The link between the introduction of BT cotton to India and a surge in farmer suicides has been refuted by other studies with decreased farmer suicides since BT cotton was introduced.
    • BT cotton accounts for 93% of cotton grown in India.
    • Maharashtra banned the sale and distribution of BT cotton in 2012, to promote local Indian seeds, which demand less water, fertilizers and pesticide input.

    What is the new study about?

    Success of BT in Punjab

    • The research was funded by the Agricultural Extension Division of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research under extramural project “Impact evaluation of integrated pest management technologies”.
    • It found that since the commercialization of BT cotton:
    1. there has been reduction in insecticide use by volume and applications,
    2. decline in environmental and human health impact associated with insecticide use,
    3. more reduction in the use of highly hazardous and riskiest insecticides, and
    4. reduction in the expenses associated with insecticide use.
    5. Cotton yields in the past 13 years have been stable, the only exception being 2015

    Now its’ time to answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.In India, the use of carbofuran, methyl parathion, phorate and triazophos is viewed with apprehension. These chemicals are used as: (CSP 2017)

    (a) Pesticides in agriculture

    (b) Preservatives in processed foods

    (c) Fruit-ripening agents

    (d) Moisturizing agents in cosmetics

  • What is Gain-of-Function Research?

    With the re-emergence of the Wuhan lab-leak origin theory, questions are also being raised on what gain-of-function research is, and whether the benefits of conducting such research outweigh the risks of pathogens escaping from labs.

    What is gain-of-function research?

    • In virology, gain-of-function research involves deliberately altering an organism in the lab, altering a gene, or introducing a mutation in a pathogen to study its transmissibility, virulence and immunogenicity.
    • It is believed that this allows researchers to study potential therapies, vaccine possibilities and ways to control the disease better in future.
    • Gain-of-function research involves manipulations that make certain pathogenic microbes more deadly or more transmissible.
    • This is done by genetically engineering the virus and by allowing them to grow in different growth mediums, a technique called as serial passage.

    Antithesis to this theory

    • There is also ‘loss-of-function’ research, which involves inactivating mutations, resulting in a significant loss of original function, or no function to the pathogen.
    • When mutations occur, they alter the structure of the virus that is being studied, resulting in altered functions. Some of these significant mutations might weaken the virus or enhance its function.

    Associated risks

    • Some forms of gain-of-function research reportedly carry inherent biosafety and biosecurity risks and are thus referred to as ‘dual-use research of concern’ (DURC).
    • This indicates that while the research may result in benefits for humanity, there is also the potential to cause harm — accidental or deliberate escape of these altered pathogens from labs may cause even pandemics.

    Essential component of vaccine development

    • The current medical countermeasures are often insufficient largely because of resistance mechanisms that lead to ‘escape mutants’, i.e., drug-resistant strains.
    • There is, hence, a continual need to develop new antiviral drugs and additional options, such as immunotherapy, based on neutralizing monoclonal antibodies.
    • Ultimately, gain-of-function studies, which enhance viral yield and immunogenicity, are required for vaccine development.

    What is the situation in India?

    • In India, all activities related to genetically engineered organisms or cells and hazardous microorganisms and products are regulated as per the “Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules, 1989”.
    • Last year, the Department of Biotechnology issued guidelines for the establishment of containment facilities, called ‘Biosafety labs’, at levels two and three.
    • The notification provides operational guidance on the containment of biohazards and levels of biosafety that all institutions involved in research, development and handling of these microorganisms must comply with.

    Should research continue?

    • Scientists have differing opinions on the issue, particularly since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic.
    • While those on the side of gain-of-function research say that it makes science and governments battle-ready for future pandemics, there have been a rising number of calls to suspend such research.
    • Proponents of gain-of-function research believe that “nature is the ultimate bioterrorist and we need to do all we can to stay one step ahead”.
    • Some researchers thinks it is time to stop such research.
    • Science policymakers “must wrestle with defining the rare instances in which the benefits of experiments that enhance a virus’s capacity to survive and flourish in human hosts outweigh any risks.

  • [pib] Space-time induces Neutrino Oscillations

    Indian scientists have shown that the geometry of space-time can cause neutrinos to oscillate.

    What are Neutrinos?

    • A neutrino is a subatomic particle that is very similar to an electron but has no electrical charge and a very small mass, which might even be zero.
    • Since neutrinos are electrically neutral, they are not affected by the electromagnetic forces which act on electrons. Hence, they are also called Ghost Particles.
    • Neutrinos are affected only by a “weak” sub-atomic force of a much shorter range than electromagnetism and are therefore able to pass through great distances in matter without being affected by it.
    • They are also one of the most abundant particles in the universe. As they have very little interaction with matter, however, they are incredibly difficult to detect.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.The known forces of nature can be divided into four classes, viz, gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force. With reference to them, which one of the following statements is not correct?

    (a) Gravity is the strongest of the four

    (b) Electromagnetism act only on particles with an electric charge

    (c) Weak nuclear force causes radioactivity

    (d) Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons inside the nuclear of an atom

    Finding of the new research

    • Neutrinos are mysterious particles, produced copiously in nuclear reactions in the Sun, stars, and elsewhere.
    • They “oscillate”- meaning that different types of neutrinos change into one another – as has been found in many experiments.
    • Probing of oscillations of neutrinos and their relations with mass are crucial in studying the origin of the universe.
    • Neutrinos interact very weakly with everything else – trillions of them pass through every human being every second without anyone noticing.
    • A neutrino’s spin always points in the opposite direction of its motion, and until a few years ago, neutrinos were believed to be massless.

    What makes this possible?

    • The geometry of space-time can cause neutrino oscillations through quantum effects even if neutrinos are massless.
    • Einstein’s theory of general relativity says that gravitation is the manifestation of space-time curvature.
    • Neutrinos, electrons, protons and other particles which are in the category of fermions show a certain peculiarity when they move in presence of gravity.
    • Space-time induces a quantum force in addition to gravity between every two fermions.
    • This force can depend on the spin of the particles and causes massless neutrinos to appear massive when they pass through matter, like the Sun’s corona or the Earth’s atmosphere.
    • Something similar happens for electroweak interactions, and together with the geometrically induced mass, it is enough to cause oscillation of neutrinos.

  • India to launch Deep Ocean Mission

    The Union Cabinet has approved the long-pending Deep Ocean Mission since 2018.

    Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)

    • Nodal Agency: Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)
    • The mission proposes to explore the deep ocean similar to the space exploration started by ISRO.
    • Underwater robotics and ‘manned’ submersibles are key components of the Mission which will help India harness various living and non-living (water, mineral and energy) resources from the seabed and deep water.
    • The tasks that will be undertaken over this period include deep-sea mining, survey, energy exploration and offshore-based desalination.
    • These technological developments are funded under an umbrella scheme of the government – called Ocean Services, Technology, Observations, Resources Modelling and Science (O-SMART).

    Six major components

    (1) Development of Technologies for Deep Sea Mining, and Manned Submersible:

    • A manned submersible will be developed to carry three people to a depth of 6000 metres in the ocean with suite of scientific sensors and tools.
    • Only a very few countries have acquired this capability.
    • An Integrated Mining System will be also developed for mining Polymetallic Nodules from 6000 m depth in the central Indian Ocean.

    (2) Development of Ocean Climate Change Advisory Services:

    • A suite of observations and models will be developed to understand and provide future projections of important climate variables on seasonal to decadal time scales under this proof of concept component.
    • This component will support the Blue Economy priority area of coastal tourism.

    (3) Technological innovations for exploration and conservation of deep-sea biodiversity:

    • Bio-prospecting of deep-sea flora and fauna including microbes and studies on sustainable utilization of deep-sea bio-resources will be the main focus.
    • This component will support the Blue Economy priority area of Marine Fisheries and allied services.

    (4) Deep Ocean Survey and Exploration:

    • The primary objective of this component is to explore and identify potential sites of multi-metal Hydrothermal Sulphides mineralization along the Indian Ocean mid-oceanic ridges.
    • This component will additionally support the Blue Economy priority area of deep-sea exploration of ocean resources.

    (5) Energy and freshwater from the Ocean:

    • Studies and detailed engineering design for offshore Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) powered desalination plant are envisaged in this proof of concept proposal.
    • This component will support the Blue Economy priority area of offshore energy development.

    (6) Advanced Marine Station for Ocean Biology:

    • This component is aimed at the development of human capacity and enterprise in ocean biology and engineering.
    • This component will translate research into the industrial application and product development through on-site business incubator facilities.
    • This component will support the Blue Economy priority area of Marine Biology, Blue trade and Blue manufacturing.

    Why need such a mission?

    • Oceans, which cover 70 per cent of the globe, remain a key part of our life. About 95 percent of the Deep Ocean remains unexplored.
    • For India, with its three sides surrounded by the oceans and around 30 per cent of the country’s population living in coastal areas.
    • The ocean is a major economic factor supporting fisheries and aquaculture, tourism, livelihoods and blue trade.
    • Oceans are also a storehouse of food, energy, minerals, medicines, modulator of weather and climate and underpin life on Earth.

    Pre-requisites to this mission

    • India has been allotted a site of 75,000 square kilometres in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) by the UN International Sea Bed Authority for the exploitation of polymetallic nodules (PMN).

    Hunt for PMNs

    • These are rocks scattered on the seabed containing iron, manganese, nickel and cobalt.
    • Being able to lay hands on a fraction of that reserve can meet the energy requirement of India for the next 100 years.
    • It has been estimated that 380 million metric tonnes of polymetallic nodules are available at the bottom of the seas in the Central Indian Ocean.
    • India’s Exclusive Economic Zone spreads over 2.2 million square kilometers.

  • India’s investment in research unsatisfactory: UNESCO report

    While India has made ‘solid progress’ towards the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets concerning the industry, infrastructure, and innovation, the country’s investment in research remains unsatisfactory, the UNESCO Science Report has observed. UNESCO Science Report.

    This newscard provides useful data about India’s expenditure on R&D and its adequacy.

    UNESCO Science Report

    • The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
    • Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities.

    Data on research funding in India

    • India has one of the lowest GERD/GDP ratios among the BRICS nations, according to the report.
    • The gross domestic expenditure on research (GERD) has been stagnant at 0.7% of the GDP for years, although, in absolute terms, research expenditure has increased.

    Why flag such slowdown?

    • India’s research intensity has been declining since 2014.
    • The Science and Technology Policy of 2003 fixed the threshold of devoting 2% of GDP to research and development (R&D) by 2007.
    • This target date was set back to 2018 in the new Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (2013) then again to 2022 by the Economic Advisory Council of the Prime Minister.
    • In 2020, the task force drafting the country’s new Science and Technology Policy recommended pushing back the target date to a more realistic 2030.

    Rise of private enterprises

    • R&D in the government sector has been in steady decline since 2015, whereas the share of private business enterprises in it has shot up to 42%.
    • While in theory this is a positive trend, the R&D is focused primarily on sectors such as pharmaceuticals, automotive, and information technology.
    • Even in these industries, it is concentrated in a small number of firms, the report said.
    • It further noted that investment in R&D by foreign multinationals is on the rise, accounting for as much as 16% of private-sector investment in R&D in 2019.
    • The report noted that the majority of the software-related patents were being bagged by MNCs operating from Indian soil, while pharma patents were obtained mostly by domestic firms.

    Few successes to count

    • On the bright side is the encouraging increase in scientific publications by Indian researchers on cutting-edge technologies.
    • Total publications have risen from 80,458 in 2011 to 1.61 lakh in 2019.
    • Indian researchers are publishing between 1.5 and 1.8 times the global average on green technologies, complementing the government’s push to expand green energy sources.
    • But then again, patenting by domestic corporations, research institutes, universities, and individuals remain low in India.

    Key suggestions

    • The UNESCO Science Report underscores the need for ‘policy bridges’ for fostering a more effective interaction between foreign and local research firms.
    • Given the large number of multinational corporations now engaged in R&D, it is imperative that the host economy benefits from this activity the report said.
    • It also called for improved linkages between the start-up ecosystem and manufacturers to push technological development in sectors where India enjoys a global presence.

  • Bring genomic sequencing into the pandemic fight

    The article highlights the importance of genomic sequencing in dealing effectively with the pandemic and suggest the scaling up of genomic sequencing.

    Why genomic sequencing is important

    • An effective COVID-19 pandemic response requires, inter alia, keeping track of emerging variants and then conducting further studies about their transmissibility, immune escape and potential to cause severe disease.
    • The success of the United States and the United Kingdom in containing the virus also goes to scaled-up genomic sequencing, tracking the emerging variants and using that evidence for timely actions.
    • The data from genomic sequencing has both policy and operational implications.
    • Our scientific knowledge and understanding about emerging strains is going to be the key to deploy public health interventions (vaccines included) to fight the pandemic.
    • The emerging variants — with early evidence of higher transmissibility, immune escape and breakthrough infections — demand continuous re-thinking and re-strategising of the pandemic response by every country.

    Insufficient genomic sequencing in India

    • Though the procedural steps such as setting up the Indian SARS-CoV2 Genomic Consortia, or INSACOG have been taken, the sequencing has remained at a very low level of a few thousand cases only.
    • The challenge of insufficient genomic sequencing is further compounded by slow pace of data sharing.

    Steps need to be taken

    • 1) Scale-up genomic sequencing: India needs to scale up genomic sequencing, across all States.
    •  More genomic sequencing is needed from large urban agglomerations.
    • A national-level analysis of collated genomic sequencing data should be done on a regular basis and findings shared publicly.
    • 2) Research on vaccine effectiveness: The Indian government needs to invest and support more scientific and operational research on vaccine effectiveness.
    • Rethink vaccine policy: There are early indications of immune escape and reduced vaccine effectiveness against the Delta variant (especially after one-shot).
    • These are the questions that experts need to deliberate and come up with the answers.

    Consider the question “What is genomic sequencing and how it could help in dealing with the Covid-19 pandemic? Suggest the steps India need to take to use genomic sequencing in curbing the pandemic.”

    Conclusion

    As India prepares for the third wave, increasing genomic sequencing and use of scientific evidence for decision making are not a choice but an absolute essential.

  • Supersonic flying: benefits and concerns

    The United Airlines of USA has announced it was ordering 15 Overture planes with the ability to travel at Mach 1.7, faster than the speed of sound, from the Denver-based startup Boom.

    What is a Supersonic Plane?

    • Supersonic aircraft are planes that can fly faster than the speed of sound.
    • The technology for supersonic flights is actually over 70 years old, but only recently has been used for commercial flying.
    • Before 1976, when the first commercial supersonic flight took off, the planes were used entirely for military purposes.
    • Usually, supersonic planes can travel at the speed of around 900 kmph, twice the speed of normal aircraft.

    What about the Overture supersonic plane?

    • The Overture aircraft would travel at the speed of Mach 1.7 or 1,805 kmph with a range of 4,250 nautical miles. In a single flight, it could carry 65 to 88 passengers and reach an altitude of 60,000 ft.
    • The company has expressed confidence in getting an “experimental” jet ready by 2022, start rolling out aircraft by 2025 and eventually open them for passengers by 2029.
    • It claims to build on Concorde’s legacy through faster, more efficient and sustainable technology.

    Challenges with supersonic planes

    Flying passengers at a supersonic speed is accompanied by a whole set of challenges.

    • Firstly, the costs of making “sustainable” supersonic planes are extremely high.
    • The very nature of its flying — using excessive amounts of fuel and energy — is likely to have high environmental costs.
    • Despite the use of sustainable fuels, greenhouse gas emissions are not nullified.
    • Secondly, the very speed of the planes results in producing excessive amounts of noise pollution in the environment.
    • The “Sonic Boom” created by these planes feels like an explosion to the human ear.
    • This, thus, limits where and when the supersonic planes can fly. They can only reach their actual speed until they are far enough from people and completely over the ocean.
    • Lastly, it would not be economically feasible for everyone. Only the very rich can afford supersonic planes, as a ticket is likely to be way costlier than a first-class ticket of a regular plane.

  • How blind people can navigate better using Echolocation

    A technique used by animals such as dolphins, whales, and bats to navigate their surroundings can also be used by blind people to get around better and have greater independence and well-being, researchers at Durham University in the UK have shown.

    What is Echolocation?

    • Echolocation, also called biosonar, is a biological sonar used by several animal species.
    • Echolocating animals emit calls out to the environment and listen to the echoes of those calls that return from various objects near them.
    • They use these echoes to locate and identify the objects.

    What has the new study found?

    • The same technique can help blind people locate still objects by producing clicking sounds from their mouth and hands.
    • The researchers organized a 10-week training programme, in which 12 blind and 14 sighted volunteers aged between 21 and 79 were taught click-based echolocation.
    • The volunteers were trained in distinguishing between the size of objects, orientation perception and virtual navigation.
    • At the end of the training, the participants had been able to improve their ability to navigate using clicking noises either from one’s mouth, walking cane taps or footsteps.