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Subject: Climate Change

1. Global Warming and Issues
2. All about Pollution

  • Global warming and pollution are stripping vibrant colors from nature

    Why in the news?

    A 2024 study in Ecology and Evolution reports that insects such as ladybirds and dragonflies in temperate regions are turning lighter due to frequent heatwaves. Over half of the world’s oceans have become greener in the last two decades. Forests are turning browner. Coral reefs, including those in Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep, are facing repeated bleaching. These visible colour changes reflect large-scale climate stress on ecosystems.

    What is Ecological discolouration?

    Ecological discolouration refers to measurable changes in the natural colour patterns of ecosystems caused by environmental stress. It can be caused by:

    1. Pigment Alteration: Changes in the concentration or type of biological pigments like chlorophyll (green in plants/algae), melanin (darker tones in animals), and carotenoids (yellow/orange) often due to UV exposure or nutrient shifts.
    2. Symbiotic Loss: The most prominent example is coral bleaching, where corals expel their colorful symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) due to thermal stress, leaving behind a white skeleton.
    3. Species Composition Shifts: The replacement of native species with others such as invasive toxic dinoflagellates or algae blooms can physically change the color of water bodies or forests.
    4. Biogeochemical Disruptions: Alterations in cycles (like nitrogen or carbon) can lead to soil or water changes, such as the formation of dark terra preta soils or anaerobic “black spots” in marine sediments.

    Functions in Ecology

    1. Early-Warning Indicator: Visible fading or darkening provides an immediate signal of ecosystem instability.
    2. Stress Proxy: It serves as a measurable metric for temperature stress, chemical pollution, and habitat degradation.
    3. Biodiversity Marker: Mapping color variations across a landscape helps scientists track the loss or gain of biodiversity in real-time

    How is climate change altering ocean colour?

    1. Ocean Greening: Over 50% of global oceans have become greener in the last two decades.
    2. Algal Proliferation: Greener waters indicate increased algal presence.
    3. Sunlight Blockage: Algae reduce water clarity and limit sunlight penetration.
    4. Oxygen Depletion: Decomposition of algal blooms lowers oxygen levels, harming marine organisms.

    What is Coral bleaching?

    It is when corals expel the colorful, nutrient-providing algae (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues due to stress, turning them white, but they aren’t dead yet. Prolonged stress from rising ocean temperatures (climate change) or other factors like pollution causes them to starve and potentially die, leading to reef ecosystem collapse.

    What happens during bleaching?

    1. Stress triggers expulsion: Corals are stressed by changes in water temperature (usually warming), light, salinity, or nutrients.
    2. Algae leave: Stressed corals expel the symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) that live within them and provide food and color.
    3. Coral turns white: Without the algae, the coral’s transparent tissue reveals its white skeleton, making it appear “bleached”.

    How does coral bleaching reflect marine ecosystem stress?

    1. Indian Reef Impact: Bleaching reported in Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
    2. Thermal Stress Mechanism: Corals expel symbiotic algae under heat stress, turning white.
    3. Mortality Risk: Repeated bleaching increases coral death probability.
    4. Ecosystem Disruption: Coral reefs support marine biodiversity and fisheries.

    What does forest browning indicate?

    1. Vegetation Stress: Forests are turning browner due to climate stress and habitat degradation.
    2. Pigment Reduction: Chlorophyll loss reflects reduced photosynthetic efficiency.
    3. Habitat Instability: Browning signals declining ecosystem resilience.

    How are insects adapting through pigmentation change?

    1. 2024 Study Finding: Ladybirds and dragonflies in temperate northern regions are becoming lighter.
    2. Heatwave Response: Lighter pigmentation reflects sunlight and prevents overheating.
    3. Melanin Composition:
      1. Eumelanin: Produces brown/black shades; absorbs more heat.
      2. Pheomelanin: Produces yellow/red tones.
    4. Reproductive Impact: Pigmentation shifts may affect mating patterns and reproductive timing.

    What historical example shows climate-driven colour adaptation?

    Climate-driven colour adaptation refers to the process where, in response to changing environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, UV radiation) caused by climate change, species evolve or plastically alter their body or flower pigmentation to improve survival, thermoregulation, or reproduction.

    1. Industrial Revolution Case: Soot darkened tree bark.
    2. Peppered Moth Shift: Dark variants survived due to improved camouflage; light variants declined.
    3. Adaptive Principle: Species become darker in colder climates and lighter in warmer conditions. 
    4. Butterflies (Colias meadii): A long-term study (1953-2012) showed that wing melanization in these butterflies decreased with increasing temperature, but this pattern varied by region, showing higher melanism in the hotter southern USA.

    How does deforestation affect species colour diversity?

    1. Amazon Study (Biodiversity and Conservation): Deforestation reduces bright colour displays in butterflies.
    2. Habitat Disturbance Effect: Disturbed forests show less diverse butterfly palettes.
    3. Regeneration Signal: Naturally regenerated Amazon forests show improvement in colour diversity.

    What are the ecological implications?

    1. Camouflage Disruption: Alters predator-prey balance.
    2. Thermoregulation Shift: Pigmentation change modifies heat absorption.
    3. Biodiversity Indicator: Colour variation reflects ecosystem health.
    4. Systemic Climate Signal: Large-scale discolouration indicates long-term environmental stress.

    Conclusion

    Ecological discolouration represents a visible manifestation of climate-induced ecosystem stress. Ocean greening, forest browning, coral bleaching, and pigmentation shifts in species indicate disruption in biological processes and habitat stability. These changes signal declining ecosystem resilience and rising vulnerability to extreme climatic events. Monitoring such colour shifts can function as an early warning tool for biodiversity loss and guide targeted climate adaptation and conservation strategies.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

    Linkage: Climate change impact is a recurring GS-3 theme linking environment, disaster vulnerability, and sustainable development. Coral bleaching, ocean warming, and marine ecosystem stress are important for coastal impact analysis, while Himalayan glacier melt, altered monsoons, and extreme events are crucial dimensions when examining climate change effects in India.

  • Why carbon capture is key to achieving net-zero goal

    Why in the News?

    The Union Budget has, for the first time, made a large, dedicated fiscal commitment of ₹20,000 crore to carbon capture, utilisation and storage. This marks a shift from pilot-driven experimentation to scale-oriented deployment. The urgency is underscored by global data showing 1 billion tonnes of annual CO₂ capture required by 2030, while only 50 million tonnes are currently captured worldwide. India’s net-zero pathway increasingly depends on CCUS as emissions from cement, steel and chemicals cannot be eliminated through renewable energy substitution alone.

    What is Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage?

    1. It refers to technologies that capture CO₂ from industrial processes, transport it, and either store it in geological formations or convert it into useful products.
    2. Process Stages: CCUS involves capturing carbon dioxide (via post-combustion, pre-combustion, or oxy-fuel combustion), transporting it, and either using it for industrial applications or storing it permanently
    3. Role in Climate Change: It is essential for decarbonizing “hard-to-abate” sectors, including steel, cement, and chemical production, which account for significant global emissions.
    4. Carbon Removal: CCUS enables negative emissions through technologies like Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) and Direct Air Capture (DACCS).
    5. Challenges: High capital costs, energy intensity (high auxiliary power consumption), safety concerns, and infrastructure needs for transport are major bottlenecks.

    What Does Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage Involve?

    1. Carbon Capture: Enables separation of CO₂ from industrial exhaust streams in cement, steel, power and refining operations.
    2. Carbon Storage: Facilitates long-term containment of CO₂ in geological formations such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
    3. Carbon Utilisation: Supports conversion of captured CO₂ into chemicals and industrial inputs, reducing fresh fossil use.

    Why Is CCUS Critical for Achieving Net-Zero?

    1. Hard-to-Abate Emissions: Addresses emissions that arise from chemical reactions in cement and steel, not from fuel combustion.
    2. Limits of Renewables: Recognises that shifting to renewable electricity does not eliminate process emissions in heavy industry.
    3. Climate Mitigation: Enables deep emissions reduction without compromising industrial output and economic growth.

    What Is the Current Global Status of Carbon Capture?

    1. Operational Capacity: Includes 45 commercial CCUS facilities worldwide.
    2. Captured Volume: Accounts for only 50 million tonnes of CO₂ annually, far below climate targets.
    3. 2030 Requirement: Indicates a need for 1 billion tonnes of CO₂ capture per year by 2030 to align with net-zero pathways.
    4. Deployment Gap: Highlights a sharp mismatch between climate targets and present technological scale.

    What Is the Status of CCUS Technologies in India?

    1. Pilot Projects: Includes initiatives by Tata Steel, Dalmia Cement, NTPC, ONGC, focusing on capture feasibility.
    2. Research Ecosystem: Involves dozens of research groups working on capture materials and processes.
    3. Institutional Leadership: Anchored by Centres of Excellence at Indian Institute of Technology Bombay and Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, focusing on indigenous CCUS solutions.
    4. Readiness Gap: Indicates laboratory-level maturity but limited field-scale testing.

    How Does the Union Budget Change the CCUS Landscape?

    1. Fiscal Allocation: Provides ₹20,000 crore for CCUS technology development and deployment.
    2. Scale Transition: Signals movement from pilot projects to industrial demonstration.
    3. Cost Reduction: Aims to address high capital and operational costs that restrict commercial viability.
    4. Industrial Adoption: Targets steel, cement, refineries and chemicals as early adopters.

    Why Are Certain Industries Central to CCUS Deployment?

    1. Cement Sector: Generates CO₂ as an inherent by-product of limestone calcination.
    2. Steel Sector: Emits carbon through coke-based reduction processes.
    3. Chemical and Refining Industries: Produce process emissions independent of energy source.
    4. Competitiveness: Aligns emission reduction with global trade requirements, including carbon border measures.

    What Are the Economic and Strategic Benefits of CCUS?

    1. Industrial Continuity: Enables emission reduction without relocating or shutting down core industries.
    2. Global Competitiveness: Reduces exposure to mechanisms such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism.
    3. Technology Leadership: Positions India as a developer, not just adopter, of CCUS technologies.
    4. Cost Containment: Prevents loss of competitiveness from carbon-intensive exports.

    Conclusion

    CCUS is not a substitute for renewable energy but a necessary complement for India’s net-zero strategy. The Budget’s ₹20,000 crore allocation marks a decisive shift from experimentation to scale. However, success depends on rapid field deployment, cost reduction, and industry integration to ensure CCUS delivers measurable emissions reduction by 2030.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025] What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? What is the potential role of CCUS in tackling climate change? 

    Linkage: This question is directly linked to GS III (Environment, Climate Change, Clean Technologies), reflecting UPSC’s focus on technological pathways for achieving net-zero and decarbonising hard-to-abate industries.

  • Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

    Why in the news?

    The European Union’s (EU) Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) (CBAM) is a, as of January 1, 2026, fully implemented policy designed to levy a tax on carbon-intensive imports, such as steel, cement, aluminum, fertilizers, electricity, and hydrogen. This is applied to prevent “carbon leakage”. It ensures foreign producers pay a similar carbon price to EU firms, aiming to encourage global. It is in the news as it enters its decisive phase ahead of 2026, raising concerns for India’s carbon-intensive exports to the EU. Its relevance has increased after the conclusion of the India-EU Free Trade Agreement, which includes a non-discrimination (forward-MFN) clause on CBAM but does not remove the regulation itself.

    What is the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

    1. Carbon Pricing Instrument: Applies a carbon price on imports equivalent to the EU carbon price under the ETS.
    2. Leakage Prevention Tool: Prevents relocation of carbon-intensive production to jurisdictions with weaker climate policies.
    3. Climate-Trade Linkage: Integrates climate objectives directly into customs and trade regulation.
    4. WTO Compatibility Claim: Structured to mirror domestic carbon pricing to avoid discrimination.

    How Does CBAM Function in Practice?

    1. CBAM Certificates: Requires EU importers to purchase certificates reflecting embedded emissions.
    2. Price Benchmarking: Certificate prices linked to EU ETS allowance auction prices.
    3. Annual Compliance: Importers must declare embedded emissions and surrender certificates annually.
    4. Carbon Cost Deduction: Allows deduction if an equivalent carbon price is already paid in the exporting country.
    5. Equivalence Provision: Exempts exporters from jurisdictions with comparable carbon pricing regimes.

    What is the Implementation Timeline of CBAM?

    1. Transitional Phase (2023-2025):
      1. Reporting-only regime with quarterly disclosure of embedded emissions.
      2. No financial liabilities imposed.
    2. Definitive Regime (from 2026):
      1. Mandatory purchase and surrender of CBAM certificates.
      2. Threshold-based authorisation requirement for EU importers (above 50 tonnes).

    Which Sectors and Products are Covered?

    1. Iron and Steel: Includes selected downstream products such as nuts and bolts.
    2. Cement: High process emissions sector.
    3. Aluminium: Energy-intensive production profile.
    4. Fertilisers: Emissions from chemical processing.
    5. Electricity: Cross-border power imports.
    6. Hydrogen: Emerging but carbon-sensitive input.

    Together, these sectors account for over 50% of emissions in EU ETS-covered industries when fully phased in.

    Why Did the EU Introduce CBAM?

    1. Carbon Leakage Risk: Prevents displacement of emissions rather than their reduction.
    2. ETS Integrity: Supports tightening of the EU ETS by phasing out free allowances.
    3. Climate Ambition: Reinforces the EU’s 55% emissions reduction target by 2030.
    4. Trade Neutrality: Aligns treatment of domestic and imported goods.

    What are the Global and Economic Implications?

    • Emission Outcomes: OECD simulations indicate global emissions fall by 0.54% with CBAM, compared to 0.39% without it.
    • Trade Reorientation: EU importers shift sourcing towards cleaner producers.
    • Sectoral Spillovers:
      1. Covered EU industries regain domestic competitiveness but face export disadvantages.
      2. Downstream sectors face higher input costs without border protection.
    2. Country-Level Effects:
      1. Cleaner exporters (Chile, Mexico, Türkiye) gain marginally.
      2. Carbon-intensive exporters (India, South Africa) face modest export contraction (~0.2%).

    Why Does CBAM Matter for India?

    1. Export Exposure: India is a major exporter of iron, steel, aluminium, and fertilisers to the EU.
    2. Carbon Intensity Gap: Higher emissions intensity increases CBAM liability.
    3. Policy Equity Concerns: Raises questions of common but differentiated responsibilities.
    4. Administrative Burden: Requires robust emissions accounting and verification infrastructure.
    5. Diplomatic Engagement: EU’s acknowledgment of India’s concerns reflects negotiation space.

    Are there any regulatory concessions given to India on the CBAM regime after the India-EU FTA?  

    1. India secured a “forward-Most Favoured Nation (forward-MFN) clause on CBAM”, i.e., any future CBAM relaxations, flexibilities or concessions that the EU grants to other partners will automatically apply to India.
    2. Technical dialogue & cooperation: A structured technical dialogue to ease market access under CBAM and help exporters comply.
    3. Financial support pledge: The EU committed financing assistance (reported figure: ~€500 million over two years) to support India’s emissions reduction efforts.
    4. Rapid-response / rebalancing mechanism: Treaty language to rebalance rights if EU regulatory measures impair FTA benefits to Indian firms (safeguard-like clause).
    5. CBAM was not removed: The FTA does not repeal or exempt India from CBAM. The EU confirmed CBAM remains in place; the deal only ensures parity if the EU later gives concessions to others. CBAM remains operational.
    6. Plain effect of the forward-MFN clause: India will get the same future relaxations the EU grants other partners but CBAM still applies until and unless the EU changes its rules for everyone.

    Likely sectoral impact on India (concise, with editorial/analysis references)

    1. Steel (highest exposure): Continued cost pressure for flat-rolled and high-carbon products; EU remains a major buyer (e.g., ~44% of India’s steel exports to EU in some analyses), so impact on volumes and margins persists unless India decarbonises faster. .
    2. Aluminium: Risk of lower exports for high-emission aluminium; parity helps if EU later gives credits or recognition to cleaner producers, but immediate certificate costs remain.
    3. Cement & fertilisers: High process emissions mean persistent CBAM liability; cost pass-through to EU buyers limited, exporters will bear squeeze. 
    4. Downstream industries (autos, machinery): Indirect effect via higher input costs if upstream suppliers face CBAM costs; competitiveness may be affected for export-oriented value chains. 
    5. MSMEs: Disproportionate burden from verification and reporting costs, parity clause doesn’t reduce compliance complexity. Editorials warn of non-tariff barrier effects. .

    Conclusion

    The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism marks a structural shift in global trade, where climate regulation increasingly conditions market access. For India, CBAM poses real competitiveness and compliance challenges for carbon-intensive sectors, even as it aligns with the EU’s climate ambitions. The conclusion of the India–EU Free Trade Agreement provides limited but meaningful relief by securing a forward-Most Favoured Nation–type non-discrimination clause on CBAM, ensuring parity with any future concessions extended to other partners. However, the agreement does not dilute or suspend CBAM obligations, and carbon costs will continue to apply from 2026. Ultimately, the FTA mitigates relative disadvantage but does not eliminate structural pressures. India’s long-term response must therefore combine trade diplomacy with accelerated domestic decarbonisation, robust emissions accounting, and targeted support for vulnerable sectors to remain competitive in an increasingly climate-regulated global economy.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Linkage: CBAM connects climate mitigation with trade by pricing carbon in imports, making environmental regulation a market-access condition. It fits GS-III Environment as an example of climate policy shaping global trade and industry.

  • [23rd January 2026] The Hindu OpED: A dangerous march towards a Himalayan ecocide

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] Vulnerability is an essential element for defining disaster impact and its threat to people. How and why can vulnerability to disasters be characterized? Discuss different type of vulnerability with reference to disasters.

    Linkage: This PYQ tests conceptual clarity on disaster vulnerability under GS-III (Disaster Management), especially the classification of physical, environmental, social, and institutional vulnerabilities. The article demonstrates how institutional and environmental vulnerabilities amplify natural hazards into recurring disasters.

    Mentor’s Comment

    This article analyses the growing ecological and governance crisis in the Indian Himalayas, reflected in frequent disasters and infrastructure decisions that ignore scientific and policy safeguards. Using the Char Dham road-widening project as an example, it shows how unsafe land use, poor engineering choices, and weak policy coordination are increasing disaster risks in a highly fragile mountain region.

    Why in the news?

    The Himalayas experienced nearly 331 days of climate impacts in 2025, resulting in over 4,000 deaths, with Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand bearing the heaviest toll. Despite repeated disasters from cloudbursts, landslides, avalanches, and flash floods, the government has approved large-scale infrastructure expansion in disaster-prone zones. This includes the felling of nearly 7,000 Deodar trees for the Char Dham road-widening project.

    Why is the Himalayan disaster risk escalating?

    1. Climate intensification: High-altitude regions have warmed 50% faster than the global average since 1950, increasing extreme rainfall, glacial melt, and flash floods.
    2. Near-continuous exposure: 2025 recorded 331 days of climate impacts, indicating a permanent hazard regime rather than seasonal extremes.
    3. Hazard convergence: Cloudbursts, landslides, avalanches, and land subsidence increasingly interact to produce compound disasters.

    Why is infrastructure expansion central to the crisis?

    1. Unsafe land use: Cutting unstable slopes for wide highways, drilling tunnels without adequate geological surveys, and large hydropower construction directly destabilise fragile terrain.
    2. Slope destabilisation: Excessively steep hill-cutting violates the natural angle of repose of Himalayan geology, creating permanent instability.
    3. Muck dumping: Indiscriminate disposal of excavated debris into rivers and slopes accelerates erosion and flood risk.

    What makes the Char Dham road-widening project problematic?

    1. Incorrect road standard: Adoption of the DL-PS (12-metre paved surface) standard in a disaster-prone region contradicts ecological and geological constraints.
    2. Project fragmentation: Bypassing a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment through artificial project segmentation.
    3. Scale of impact: Nearly 700 km of widened roads have generated over 800 active landslide zones, frequently closing strategic border routes.
    4. Delayed remedies: Retrofitting slopes with fibreglass bolts and wire mesh comes eight years after large-scale destabilisation, limiting effectiveness.

    Why are Deodar forests ecologically irreplaceable?

    1. Slope stabilisation: Extensive root systems bind fragile soils, reducing landslides and debris flows.
    2. Avalanche buffering: Forest cover acts as a natural barrier against glacial debris and snow avalanches.
    3. River health: Deodar forests regulate water temperature, sustain dissolved oxygen, and maintain water quality in snowmelt-fed streams.
    4. Microbial regulation: Antimicrobial compounds from leaf litter suppress harmful bacteria while promoting beneficial microbial communities.
    5. Legal recognition: Located within the Bhagirathi Eco-Sensitive Zone (≈4,000 sq km), established in 2012 to protect the Ganga’s last pristine stretch.

    Why is ‘tree translocation’ scientifically flawed?

    1. Ecological specificity: Centuries-old Deodars perform site-specific functions that cannot be replicated elsewhere.
    2. Functional loss: Uprooting effectively nullifies root-based slope stabilisation and microbial regulation.
    3. Absence of alternatives: No suitable terrain exists to recreate identical ecological conditions.

    How does governance failure amplify disaster risk?

    1. Policy contradiction: Current development initiatives violate the National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE).
    2. Mandate dilution: NMSHE prioritises glacier monitoring, biodiversity protection, hazard mitigation, and sustainable livelihoods, but lacks implementation authority.
    3. Short-termism: Persistent prioritisation of immediate economic gains over long-term disaster resilience.
    4. Regulatory erosion: Repeated warnings by the National Green Tribunal remain weakly enforced.

    Why is climate change a ‘risk multiplier’ in the Himalayas?

    1. Erratic rainfall: Intensifies cloudbursts and flash floods.
    2. Glacial melt acceleration: Creates a dangerous ‘water-peak phase’ of high runoff and catastrophic floods.
    3. Future scarcity: Post-glacier retreat phase leads to prolonged water scarcity and drought.

    What human behaviours worsen ecological stress?

    1. Unregulated tourism: Exceeds carrying capacity in fragile zones.
    2. Vehicular pressure: Heavy traffic on unstable mountain roads increases slope stress.
    3. Waste mismanagement: Absence of functional solid-waste systems contaminates water sources.

    Conclusion

    Disaster resilience in the Himalayas is no longer optional but foundational to national security, ecological stability, and economic sustainability. Infrastructure decisions that ignore geological reality and ecological limits convert development into systemic risk. Scientific planning, policy coherence, and accountability must precede expansion in one of India’s most climate-sensitive landscapes.

  • Mysterious “Boiling” Seawater off Gujarat Coast

    Why in the News?

    Authorities and fishing communities have reported unusual churning and bubbling of seawater off the Gujarat coast in the Arabian Sea, prompting disaster management agencies to issue alerts and advise vessels to exercise extreme caution.

    What is Being Observed?

    • Large patches of seawater showing continuous bubbling and turbulence, resembling surface boiling
    • Phenomenon captured in videos by fishermen
    • Observed close to fishing grounds and sea transport routes

    Possible Causes  

    Natural causes

    • Methane or natural gas seepage from seabed
    • Underwater tectonic activity
    • Activity along nearby submarine ridges like the Murray Ridge or Carlsberg Ridge
    • Hydrothermal or volcanic processes

    Anthropogenic causes

    • Leakage from undersea gas or oil pipelines
    • Industrial accidents linked to offshore installations
    • Disturbances caused by heavy maritime traffic

    Prelims Pointers

    • Bubbling seas can indicate methane hydrate release
    • Arabian Sea hosts active submarine ridges, unlike the Bay of Bengal
    • Such phenomena do not automatically imply tsunamis, but signal seabed processes
    [2019] Which of the following statements are correct about the deposits of ‘methane hydrate’? 

    1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits

    2. Large deposits of ‘methane hydrate’ are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor

    3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • India expands GHG emission intensity regime to four more sectors

    Why in the news

    • The Union Government has expanded the Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity reduction regime to four additional industrial sectors under amended rules notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
    • The move operationalises India’s Carbon Credit Trading framework and strengthens compliance based climate mitigation.

    Newly included sectors

    • Petroleum refineries, Petrochemicals, Textiles, andSecondary aluminium
    • These are in addition to aluminium, cement, chlor alkali and pulp and paper sectors notified earlier.

    Coverage

    • 208 industrial units across India
      • 173 textile units
      • 21 petroleum refineries
      • 11 petrochemical units
      • 3 secondary aluminium units
    • Major public sector and private companies covered include
      • ONGC, Indian Oil, Bharat Petroleum, Hindustan Petroleum, Numaligarh Refinery and Reliance Industries.

    Legal and policy framework

    • Notified as Greenhouse Gases Emission Intensity Target Amendment Rules
    • Issued under the compliance mechanism of the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023
    • Enforced by the Central Pollution Control Board

    What is GEI (Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity) target?

    • Mandatory reduction of GHG emissions per unit of output
    • Baseline year is 2023 to 24
    • Targets apply from 2025 to 26
    • Overall reduction of 3 to 7 percent by 2026 to 27

    Compliance and penalty

    • Units must either
      • Meet GEI targets
      • Or submit carbon credit certificates equal to the shortfall
    • Non compliance penalty
      • Imposed as environmental compensation by CPCB
      • Amount equals twice the average carbon credit price in that trading cycle
      • Payable within 90 days

    Climate significance

    • Aligns with India’s net zero target of 2070
    • Supports India’s Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement
    • Promotes market driven decarbonisation instead of criminal penalties
    • Pushes energy efficiency and cleaner technologies in high emission sectors

    UPSC Prelims pointers

    • GEI focuses on emission intensity, not absolute emissions
    • Linked to Carbon Credit Trading Scheme 2023
    • Penalty equals 2 times average carbon credit price
    • Enforcement by CPCB
    • Supports India’s net zero 2070 pathway
    [2011] Regarding “carbon credits”, which one of the following statements is not correct? 

    (a) The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol

    (b) Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced greenhouse gases below their emission quota

    (c) The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the increase of carbon dioxide emission

    (d) Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time to time by the United Nations environment programs

  • Environmental (Protection) Fund

    Why in the news

    The Union Government notified detailed rules in January 2026 to operationalise the Environmental (Protection) Fund, a reform enabled by the Jan Vishwas Act, 2023.

    About

    • A statutory fund of the Government of India created to channel environmental penalties into pollution control, restoration, monitoring, research, and capacity building.
    • Converts monetary penalties into direct environmental remediation.

    Legal basis

    • Provided under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
    • Detailed rules notified in January 2026.
    • Strengthened by the Jan Vishwas Act, 2023, which decriminalised several environmental offences while retaining penalties.

    Nodal authority

    • Administered by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change or any body notified by the Central Government.

    Aim

    • Ensure that pollution penalties are recycled for environmental protection, remediation, clean technology promotion, and stronger regulatory institutions.

    Key features

    • Sources of funds
      • Penalties under the Air Act 1981 and Environment Act 1986
      • Interest from investments
      • Other prescribed sources
    • Permitted uses (11 activities)
      • Pollution prevention and mitigation
      • Remediation of contaminated sites
      • Environmental monitoring equipment
      • Clean technology research
      • IT enabled regulatory systems
      • Laboratory infrastructure
      • Capacity building of regulatory bodies
    • Revenue sharing
      • 75% of penalty proceeds to the Consolidated Fund of the State or UT
      • 25% retained by the Centre
    • Governance: Dedicated Project Management Units at Central and State levels
    • Oversight and transparency
      • Audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India
      • Centralised online portal developed by the Central Pollution Control Board
    [2019] Consider the following statements: The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to: 

    1. State the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the procedure and manner in which it is sought

    2. Lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Air Pollution Aerosols Intensify and Prolong Winter Fog Over North India: IIT Madras Study

    Why in the News

    A Indian Institute of Technology Madras led study published in Science Advances shows that air pollution aerosols are making winter fog over north India denser and longer lasting, worsening visibility and health impacts.

    About Aerosols

    • Aerosols are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere.
    • They strongly influence air quality, weather and climate.
    • Natural sources: desert dust, sea spray, volcanic ash, forest fires
    • Human sources: vehicle emissions, industrial pollution, biomass burning, coal and diesel use
    • Primary aerosols are emitted directly.
    • Secondary aerosols form in the air from gases like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

    Key Features

    • Extremely small size: penetrate deep into lungs and remain airborne easily
    • Persistence: stay suspended for days to weeks, travel long distances
    • Condensation nuclei: provide surfaces for water vapour to condense, aiding fog and cloud formation
    • Radiative effects:
      • Scatter sunlight: reflective aerosols cool the surface
      • Absorb heat: black carbon warms the atmosphere

    How Aerosols Affect Winter Fog

    • Increase number of fog droplets, making fog thicker
    • Reduce sunlight reaching the surface, causing cooling that sustains fog
    • Slow fog dissipation, leading to prolonged low visibility episodes

    Prelims Pointers

    • Aerosols act as condensation nuclei for fog and clouds
    • Black carbon absorbs heat while sulphate aerosols reflect sunlight
    • Human sources significantly amplify winter fog over north India
    • Aerosols influence health, visibility, weather and climate simultaneously
    [2019] In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere? 

    (a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions 

    (b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones 

    (c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth 

    (d) Reducing the global warming

  • Doomsday Glacier Destabilisation and the Future of Antarctic Ice Sheets

    Why in the News?

    A recent scientific study has revealed increasing fracturing in the Thwaites Glacier, also known as the Doomsday Glacier, indicating how large parts of the Antarctic ice sheets could collapse in the future. The findings were published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface.

    Thwaites Glacier (Doomsday Glacier)

    The Thwaites Glacier is a massive glacier in West Antarctica that drains ice from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Amundsen Sea. It is one of the fastest changing glacier systems on Earth.

    Why it is called the Doomsday Glacier

    • Complete collapse could raise global sea levels by about 65 cm
    • Acts as a gateway glacier whose destabilisation can trigger wider ice sheet collapse
    • Focus area: Thwaites Eastern Ice Shelf (TEIS), a floating extension of the glacier

    Pinning point and shear zone

    • TEIS is attached to an undersea ridge called a pinning point
    • Pinning points slow ice flow but also cause compression and fracturing
    • Upstream of the pinning point lies a shear zone where ice deforms intensely

    Fracture patterns observed

    • Ice fracturing occurred in two stages
      • Long fractures parallel to ice flow
      • Smaller fractures perpendicular to ice flow
    • Annual fracture length increased sharply
      • From about 165 km in 2002
      • To about 335 km in 2022

    Consequences of fracturing

    • Breakdown of the shear zone accelerates ice flow
    • Faster ice flow increases ice discharge into the ocean
    • Raises risk of destabilisation of the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet

    Prelims Pointers

    • Thwaites Glacier is located in West Antarctica
    • Known as the Doomsday Glacier due to sea level rise potential
    • Complete melt could raise sea levels by about 65 cm
    • Study used satellite and GPS data over two decades
    • West Antarctic Ice Sheet is a global climate tipping element
    [2021] With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements: 

    1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater

    2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • India’s progress on its climate targets

    Introduction

    India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement reflect the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities, balancing development imperatives with environmental responsibility. While headline indicators show substantial compliance, deeper analysis reveals incomplete decoupling between growth and emissions, structural dependence on coal, and gaps between capacity creation and actual decarbonisation outcomes.

    Why in the News?

    India has recorded significant progress on climate metrics such as emissions intensity reduction and non-fossil power capacity expansion. Emissions intensity declined by nearly 36% between 2005 and 2020, placing India ahead of its 2030 target of 33-35% reduction. Installed non-fossil capacity crossed 40% of total capacity, achieving a Paris commitment nearly a decade early. However, absolute emissions continue to rise, forest carbon sinks remain overstated, and renewable capacity has not proportionally translated into electricity generation. The divergence between numerical targets and real climate outcomes makes this a critical inflection point.

    Has India Successfully Reduced Its Emissions Intensity?

    1. Emissions Intensity Reduction: Declined by approximately 36% from 2005 to 2020, exceeding the 2030 target of 33-35%.
    2. Comparative Performance: Intensity decline outperforms most G20 peers despite lower per-capita emissions.
    3. Structural Drivers: Renewable capacity expansion, efficiency improvements in power generation, and sectoral shifts towards services.
    4. Limitation: Intensity reduction masks rising absolute emissions due to economic expansion.

    Why Do Absolute Emissions Continue to Rise?

    1. Incomplete Decoupling: GDP growth has outpaced emissions growth, but emissions have not declined in absolute terms.
    2. Emission Levels: Territorial greenhouse gas emissions stood at ~2,959 MtCO₂e in 2020 and continue to increase.
    3. Sectoral Divergence: Power sector emissions grow faster than industrial emissions due to coal dependence.
    4. Policy Implication: Intensity-based targets delay hard choices on fossil fuel phase-down.

    Has Renewable Capacity Expansion Translated into Clean Power Generation?

    1. Installed Capacity: Non-fossil capacity crossed 40% by 2025, nearly ten years ahead of schedule.
    2. Generation Share: Non-fossil generation remains substantially lower due to grid constraints and intermittency.
    3. Coal Dominance: India retains 253 GW of coal-based capacity, providing baseload power.
    4. Curtailment Losses: Grid congestion and state-level regulatory bottlenecks limit renewable utilisation.
    5. Storage Gap: Against a projected requirement of 336 GWh of storage by 2029-30, only 500 MW of battery storage is operational as of September 2025.

    Are Forest-Based Carbon Sink Targets Credible?

    1. Official Claim: India reports 30.43 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent forest carbon stock.
    2. 2030 Target: Additional 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO₂e sequestration through forests.
    3. Measurement Issue: Forest Survey of India defines “forest cover” as land above one hectare with over 10% canopy, including plantations and monocultures.
    4. Satellite Evidence: Natural forest cover increased only 156 sq km between 2015-2023, while recorded forest cover rose by over 75,000 sq km.
    5. CAMPA Utilisation: Of ₹95,000 crore available, only 23% utilised between 2019-20 and 2023-24.
    6. Policy Risk: Over-reliance on plantations weakens biodiversity and long-term carbon stability.

    Why Does the Gap Persist Between Targets and Outcomes?

    1. Capacity vs Output Gap: Renewable installations do not proportionately increase clean electricity generation.
    2. Grid Infrastructure Deficit: Transmission, balancing capacity, and storage expansion lag behind capacity addition.
    3. Policy Fragmentation: Climate governance prioritises accounting compliance over ecological restoration.
    4. Administrative Frictions: Delays in land acquisition, approvals, and state coordination limit execution.

    What Are the Critical Challenges Ahead?

    1. Coal Lock-in: Continued investment in coal infrastructure constrains long-term decarbonisation.
    2. Storage Scaling: Energy transition hinges on rapid deployment of battery and pumped storage.
    3. Data Transparency: Overstated forest metrics undermine credibility of carbon sink commitments.
    4. Climate Stress: Rising heatwaves and water stress challenge forest productivity and carbon assimilation.

    Conclusion

    India has delivered on quantified climate commitments but remains short of achieving ecological transformation. The next phase requires shifting from intensity-led compliance to outcome-oriented decarbonisation through coal phase-down, grid modernisation, credible carbon accounting, and governance reform.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Describe the major outcome of the 26th session of the Conference of Parties [COP] to the United Nations Framework conversation on climate change [UNFCCC]. What are the commitments made by India in this conference.

    Linkage: This question links to the article’s evaluation of India’s COP-26 commitments, showing that while emissions intensity reduction and non-fossil capacity targets are being met, absolute emissions continue to rise. It highlights the UPSC focus on assessing climate pledges against actual outcomes, especially coal dependence and gaps in real decarbonisation.