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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Senna spectabilis removed from 1,963 hectares of land in Mudumalai TR

    Why in the News?

    The Tamil Nadu Forest Department has successfully removed Senna spectabilis, a highly invasive tree species, from 1,963 hectares of the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR).

    Senna spectabilis removed from 1,963 hectares of land in Mudumalai TR

    Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

    • Location: Situated in Nilgiris District, Tamil Nadu, at the tri-junction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
    • Area: Covers 321 sq. km, forming part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India’s first biosphere reserve.
    • Terrain: Undulating landscape ranging from 960–1266 m elevation.
    • Rivers: The Moyar River flows through the reserve, supporting rich biodiversity.
    • Vegetation: Includes evergreen, moist and dry deciduous forests, teak, bamboo, and grasslands (vayals).
    • Flora: Contains wild relatives of cultivated plants like rice, turmeric, and ginger.
    • Fauna: Home to tigers, elephants, gaurs, sambars, leopards, blackbucks, wild dogs, and 8% of India’s bird species.
    • Boundaries: Shares borders with Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Karnataka) and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala).
    • Cultural Note: The Oscar-winning documentary “The Elephant Whisperers” was filmed at the Theppakadu Elephant Camp inside MTR.

    About Senna spectabilis:

    • Origin: A fast-growing deciduous tree native to tropical America, introduced in India as an ornamental and shade plant.
    • Issues: Reaches 15–20 metres, produces thousands of seeds annually, spreading rapidly.
    • Invasive Impact: Dense canopy suppresses native trees and grasses, causes food scarcity for herbivores, and reduces biodiversity.
    • IUCN Status: Listed as ‘Least Concern’ but ecologically harmful in Indian forests.

    How was the eradication achieved?

    • Method: Threefold strategy- debarking mature trees, uprooting saplings with weed pullers, and mechanically clearing seedlings.
    • Duration: Large trees dry up in about 18 months after debarking.
    • Post-Removal Use: Felled trees used for paper production.
    • Objective: Restore native flora, improve wildlife forage, and ensure long-term ecosystem recovery.
    [UPSC 2018] Why is a plant called Prosopis juliflora often mentioned in news?

    Options: (a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics.

    (b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area in which it grows. *

    (c) Its extract is used in the synthesis of pesticides.

    (d) None of the above.

     

  • Global Study on Biomass Movement

    Why in the News?

    A new study published in Nature Ecology & Evolution highlights how species mobility, measured as biomass movement, shapes ecosystems and reflects human ecological dominance.

    About the Concept of Biomass Movement:

    • Overview: Biomass movement is the product of a species’ total biomass and the distance it travels annually, representing the mass of living matter displaced across ecosystems each year.
      • Biomass movement = (Total biomass of a species) × (Distance it travels annually).
    • Purpose: Quantifies how living organisms contribute to nutrient transport, seed dispersal, and energy flow through movement.
    • Comparative Metric: Enables cross-species comparison of ecological influence via mobility, bridging animal ecology and global biogeography.
    • Analytical Value: Provides a standardised ecological indicator to study both natural migrations and human-induced mobility patterns.
    • Anthropocene Context: Serves as a unified measure of ecological and energetic impact in a human-dominated epoch.
    • Scientific Basis: Concept explored in Nature Ecology & Evolution (2025) to assess species-level and anthropogenic movement on a global scale.

    Key Highlights with Example:

    • Arctic Tern: Weighing ~100 g, travels ~90,000 km annually (Arctic–Antarctica circuit), the longest animal migration known.
    • Collective Biomass Movement: Two million terns contribute only 0.016 gt/km/yr, due to low body mass despite vast distances.
    • Grey Wolf: Records 0.03 gt/km/yr, higher due to larger body size and wider terrestrial range.
    • Serengeti Migration: Over a million wildebeests, gazelles, and zebras generate biomass movement 20× greater than wolves.
    • Human Parallel: The total biomass moved in the FIFA World Cup equals that of major animal migrations, highlighting scale disparity between species.

    Human Biomass Movement and Its Consequences:

    • Magnitude: Humans move an estimated ~4,000 gt/km/yr, the largest on Earth, 40× greater than all wild land mammals combined.
    • Mobility Patterns: Average human travels 30 km/day, mostly motorised, 65% by cars/motorcycles, 10% by air, 5% by rail.
    • Economic Disparity: Two-thirds of total human mobility occurs in high- and upper-middle-income countries, reflecting global inequality.
    • Ecological Effects: Drives carbon emissions, urban sprawl, resource depletion, and land fragmentation.
    • Marine Decline: Marine animal mobility has halved since 1850 due to industrial fishing and whaling.
    • Livestock Factor: Domesticated cattle show biomass movement comparable to humans, indicating the ecological weight of livestock farming.
    • Wildlife Contrast: Combined biomass movement of all wild land mammals (excluding bats) is only 30 gt/km/yr, underscoring human dominance.
    • Anthropocene Insight: Demonstrates that human and domesticated animal mobility now defines Earth’s biogeochemical and ecological motion.

  • Bihar’s Gogabeel Lake declared India’s 94th Ramsar Site

    Why in the News?

    Gogabeel Lake, located in Katihar district, Bihar, has been officially designated as India’s 94th Ramsar Site and sixth from Bihar.

    Bihar's Gogabeel Lake declared India's 94th Ramsar Site

    About Gogabeel Lake:

    • Overview: An oxbow lake situated in Katihar district, Bihar, within the Trans-Gangetic Plains, formed between the Ganga and Mahananda rivers.
    • Hydrological Nature: Connects to both rivers during monsoon floods, functioning as a dynamic floodplain wetland.
    • Legal Status: Declared Bihar’s first community reserve, co-managed by local communities and forest authorities.
    • Ecological Significance: Serves as a key habitat for migratory birds and a breeding site for vulnerable species such as the Lesser Adjutant Stork, Black-necked Stork, and Smooth-coated Otter.
    • Biodiversity: Hosts 90+ bird species (including 30 migratory), wetland flora, and fish species like Helicopter Catfish (Wallago attu).
    • Ecosystem Services: Provides flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, carbon storage, and climate regulation, contributing to the Gangetic ecosystem’s stability.
    • Cultural Linkages: Integral to local festivals like Sirva, Adra, and Chhath, symbolising people–nature harmony in rural Bihar.

  • [5th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s forests hold the future

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Environmental pollution is a major environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.

    Linkage: Even though no direct linking PYQ is found. But here forest restoration and carbon sink creation are key mitigation measures in controlling pollution and ensuring ecosystem resilience.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India’s revised Green India Mission (GIM) signals a decisive shift in the nation’s ecological vision from expanding forest area to restoring ecosystem resilience. The article examines the ambitious plan to restore 25 million hectares by 2030, challenges in afforestation design, and how India can convert green cover into genuine carbon and community assets.

    Introduction

    India stands at the crossroads of economic growth and ecological sustainability. The recent revision of the Green India Mission (GIM) underscores the goal of restoring 25 million hectares of degraded forest and non-forest land by 2030, directly linked to India’s climate pledge of creating a carbon sink of 3.39 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent. The central question now is not just how much land India restores, but how well it does so.

    Why in the News

    The release of the revised Green India Mission blueprint (2025) marks a crucial development in India’s environmental policy. For the first time, the emphasis shifts from mere tree planting to ecological restoration and community participation. With India’s forests showing a 12% decline in photosynthetic efficiency (IIT Kharagpur-BITS Pilani, 2025), the focus on quality over quantity becomes imperative. The GIM’s success or failure will significantly impact India’s climate commitments and rural livelihoods dependent on forests.

    Afforestation in India: From Quantity to Quality

    1. New Scientific Evidence: A 2025 IIT Kharagpur study found a 12% decline in photosynthetic efficiency of dense forests due to rising temperatures and soil drying.
    2. Beyond Canopy Cover: The discovery challenges the old assumption that “more trees mean more carbon sinks” and instead emphasizes ecological resilience.
    3. Shift in Mission Focus: Between 2015-2021, ₹575 crore was disbursed for afforestation; forest and tree cover rose from 21.16% to 25.17% by 2023 yet qualitative degradation persists.

    What Are the Core Gaps in India’s Afforestation Strategy?

    1. Community Participation: Despite the Forest Rights Act (2006) empowering local communities, many plantation drives bypass their consent, eroding trust and legitimacy.
    2. Ecological Design: Monoculture plantations of eucalyptus and acacia reduce biodiversity, leaving forests vulnerable to drought and pests.
    3. Financing and Implementation: The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) holds ₹95,000 crore, but fund utilization remains inconsistent. Delhi, for instance, used only 23% of funds between 2019-2024.

    What Are the Emerging Success Stories?

    1. Odisha: Joint Forest Management Committees are now part of revenue-sharing and planning processes.
    2. Chhattisgarh: Forest departments are experimenting with biodiversity-sensitive plantations and promoting village carbon markets.
    3. Himachal Pradesh: Launched biochar programmes to reduce fire risk and generate carbon credits.
    4. Tamil Nadu: Nearly doubled mangrove cover in three years, advancing coastal carbon storage.

    How Can India Finance and Implement Effective Restoration?

    1. Utilizing CAMPA Funds: Efficient allocation and transparent dashboards can ensure accountability.
    2. Innovative Tools: Integration of carbon markets, adaptive management, and public dashboards can align national and state-level efforts.
    3. Technical Training: Expanding institutes like IIFM Bhopal or the upcoming Byrnihat Ecological Institute to train field staff in ecological design.
    4. Public-Community Collaboration: Linking local monitoring with national reporting systems will enhance ground-level legitimacy and data reliability.

    What Lies Ahead for India’s Forest Future?

    1. Smarter Restoration: Focus must shift from planting to ecological engineering using native species and local hydrology.
    2. Inclusive Climate Action: Empowering communities ensures climate justice and sustainable forest governance.
    3. National Movement Approach: Collaboration between civil society, research institutions, and local communities can transform GIM from a government scheme to a people’s mission.

    Conclusion

    India’s forests are more than carbon sinks, they are the nation’s ecological infrastructure. The revised Green India Mission represents a shift from greenwashing metrics to resilient ecosystems. With rigorous monitoring, community inclusion, and scientific restoration, India can make its forests not only a tool for carbon sequestration but a foundation for climate-resilient growth.

  • Pampadum Shola National Park

    Why in the News?

    At Pampadum Shola National Park, invasive Australian wattles are being removed and native grasslands restored naturally leading streams to flow again and biodiversity to rejuvenate.

    About Pampadum Shola National Park:

    • Location: Situated in Idukki district, Kerala, near the Tamil Nadu border, about 35 km from Munnar.
    • Area & Status: Smallest NP in Kerala (11.753 sq km); declared in 2003 to protect the shola–grassland ecosystem.
    • Landscape: Lies at 1,600–2,400 m elevation within the Anamalai–High Range landscape, part of the Anamudi Sub-cluster (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
    • Hydrology: Serves as a watershed for the Pambar and Vaigai Rivers, vital to Tamil Nadu’s plains.
    • Flora & Fauna: Features evergreen forests, moist deciduous patches, and montane grasslands; key species include Nilgiri Marten, Kerala Laughing Thrush, Nilgiri Tahr, and Indian Giant Squirrel.
    • Restoration Efforts: Ecological restoration (2020–2024) underway, removal of invasive Australian wattles (Acacia mearnsii) has revived native grasslands and streams.
    • Climate & Tourism: Experiences cool, misty weather (6°C–30°C) with dual monsoons; regulated trekking under Forest Department supervision.

    What are Shola Forests?

    • Overview: Tropical montane evergreen forests found above 1,600 m in the Western Ghats across Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
    • Etymology: Derived from Tamil word “solai”, meaning sacred grove or thicket.
    • Structure: Occur as a mosaic of stunted evergreen forests and grasslands, forming the shola–grassland ecosystem.
    • Floral Composition: Dominated by Michelia nilagirica, Rhododendron, Eurya, Schefflera, and Elaeocarpus species with rich epiphyte growth.
    • Ecological Role: Act as natural sponges, absorbing rain, recharging aquifers, and feeding perennial rivers like Cauvery, Bhavani, Vaigai, and Thamirabarani.
    • Biodiversity: Support high endemism, harbouring Nilgiri Tahr, Lion-tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Pipit, and other rare fauna.

     

    [UPSC 2020] Which of the following Protected Areas are located in Cauvery basin?

    1. Nagarhole National Park

    2. Papikonda National Park

    3. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve

    4. Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Heavy metals found in Cauvery fishes

    Why in the News?

    Researchers from Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, reported alarming levels of heavy metal pollution in the Cauvery River and its fish species, warning against excessive consumption.

    Key Findings of the Study:

    • Scope & Period: Conducted August 2023–February 2024, covering 18 sediment and 10 fish-sampling sites, analysing chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn).
    • Contamination Levels: Several rivers stretches showed cadmium and lead concentrations exceeding international safety limits in both sediments and fish tissues.
    • Pollution Hotspots: The Erode stretch emerged as the most polluted, influenced by textile dyeing, electroplating, tannery effluents, urban sewage, and agricultural runoff.
    • Bioaccumulation Pattern: Metal concentration followed the trend, liver > gills > muscle, reflecting tissue-specific accumulation in aquatic species.
    • Toxic Metal Dominance: Cadmium and lead were identified as the most toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulative, posing long-term ecological and health hazards.

    Risks Associated:

    • Ecological Impact:
      • Heavy metals disrupt fish reproduction, growth, and survival, destabilising aquatic food webs.
      • Sediment toxicity alters microbial and plankton communities, reducing biodiversity and ecosystem resilience.
    • Human Health Risks:
      • Consumption of contaminated fish can cause carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects, particularly from cadmium and lead.
      • Cadmium affects kidneys and bones, while lead impairs nervous and cognitive functions, especially in children.
      • Chronic exposure linked to liver dysfunction, hypertension, and cancer.
    • Safe Consumption Limit:
      • Researchers recommend ≤2 fish servings/week (250 g each) to minimise health risk.
      • Continuous intake leads to cumulative toxicity and higher disease risk.

    Back2Basics: Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

    What is Bioaccumulation?

    • Overview: It is the gradual buildup of toxic substances, such as heavy metals or pesticides, in the tissues of living organisms over time.
    • Mechanism: When uptake (from food, water, or sediment) exceeds the rate of excretion, contaminants accumulate within the organism’s body.
    • Example: Fish in the Cauvery absorb cadmium and lead from contaminated sediments and water faster than they can eliminate them, leading to higher internal concentrations than in their environment.

    What is Biomagnification?

    • Overview: It refers to the progressive increase in the concentration of toxins as they move up the food chain.
    • Process: Smaller aquatic organisms ingest pollutants → fish eat these organisms → humans consume contaminated fish, resulting in magnified exposure.
    • Consequence: Top predators, including humans, end up with the highest toxin concentrations, making biomagnification a significant public health hazard in contaminated ecosystems.

     

    [UPSC 2024] With reference to perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) that are used in making many consumer products, consider the following statements:

    1. PFAS are found to be widespread in drinking water, food, and food packaging materials.

    2. PFAS are not easily degraded in the environment.

    3. Persistent exposure to PFAS can lead to bioaccumulation in animal bodies.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3*

     

  • Rowmari- Donduwa Wetland Complex

    Why in the News?

    Environmentalists in Assam have proposed the Rowmari–Donduwa Wetland Complex for designation as a Ramsar Site, citing its exceptional biodiversity and ecological services.

    Assam’s Wetland Context:

    • Current Scenario: Assam has 3,500+ wetlands (≈1.01 lakh ha), but only Deepor Beel (2002) is a Ramsar Site.
    • Conservation Importance: Designating Rowmari–Donduwa would fill a 20-year conservation gap and enhance Assam’s global wetland profile.
    • Regional Context: North-East India’s Ramsar Sites-  Deepor Beel (Assam), Loktak (Manipur), Rudrasagar (Tripura), Pala (Mizoram).

    About Rowmari–Donduwa Wetland Complex:

    • Overview: Situated within the Laokhowa–Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagaon district, Assam, forming part of the Kaziranga–Orang landscape.
    • Ecological Role: An interconnected floodplain–marsh system acting as an ecological corridor between Kaziranga and Orang National Parks, supporting wildlife movement and genetic diversity.
    • Biodiversity Significance: The 6th Kaziranga Wetland Bird Census (2025) recorded 47,000+ birds of 120 species, exceeding counts from Deepor Beel and Loktak Lake.
    • Key Species: Hosts globally threatened birds, Knob-billed Duck, Lesser Adjutant Stork, Black-necked Stork, Ferruginous Pochard, and Common Pochard.
    • Ecosystem Services: Provides flood control, groundwater recharge, carbon storage, and supports fisheries and ecotourism-based livelihoods.
    • Ramsar Eligibility: Fulfils 8 of 9 Ramsar criteria, qualifying as a Wetland of International Importance.

    Back2Basics: Ramsar Convention

    • Establishment: Signed on 2 February 1971 in Ramsar, Iran.
    • Objective: Provide a framework for conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
    • Functions:
      • Identify and designate wetlands of international importance.
      • Promote effective management of wetlands.
      • Foster international cooperation for conservation.
    • Members: 173 countries (as of 2025).
    • India and Ramsar:
      • India joined in 1982.
      • First Ramsar site: Chilika Lake, Odisha (1981).
      • Current total: 93 sites (Sept 2025), covering 13,60,718 hectares.
      • Growth: From 26 sites in 2012 to 93 in 2025 (51 added since 2020).
      • State-wise: Tamil Nadu has the highest (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
      • About 10% of India’s total wetland area is under Ramsar listing.
    • Montreux Record: List of Ramsar sites under threat of ecological change.
      • 48 sites globally (2025).
      • 2 Indian sites included: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
    • World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd every year.
      • 2025 Theme: “Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future”.

    Criteria for Declaration (9 Criteria):

    A wetland can be declared a Ramsar site if it meets at least one of these:

    1. Has unique, rare, or representative wetland types.
    2. Supports vulnerable, endangered, or endemic species.
    3. Provides critical habitat for waterfowl, especially during migration.
    4. Contains significant ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological features.
    5. Supports biodiversity conservation and scientific research.
    6. Provides ecosystem services like flood control, groundwater recharge, and water purification.
    7. Has cultural, spiritual, or recreational importance.
    8. Ensures sustainable livelihoods for local communities.
    9. Faces threats requiring international cooperation for conservation.

     

    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Wetland/Lake Location

    1. Hokera Wetland- Punjab

    2. Renuka Wetland- Himachal Pradesh

    3. Rudrasagar Lake- Tripura

    4. Sasthamkotta Lake- Tamil Nadu

    How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs

     

  • Nauradehi WLS to become 3rd home for Cheetahs in Madhya Pradesh

    Why in the News?

    Madhya Pradesh CM has announced that Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary will soon become the third home for cheetahs in the State, after Kuno National Park and Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary.

    About Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary:

    • Overview: Largest wildlife sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, covering 1,197 sq km across Sagar, Damoh, and Narsinghpur districts; located between the Narmada and Ganga river basins, forming a key ecological transition zone.
    • Establishment: Declared in 1975 to conserve the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes), the flagship species. Habitat includes dry deciduous forests, scrublands, and grasslands supporting leopard, sloth bear, blackbuck, nilgai, chital, and hyena populations.
    • Upgradation (2024): Elevated to a Tiger Reserve to strengthen protection and become eligible for Project Cheetah under the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
    • Connectivity: Linked with Panna Tiger Reserve and Satpura Tiger Reserve through the Nauradehi–Panna corridor, ensuring gene flow across Central India’s forest landscapes.
    • Habitat Characteristics: Open woodlands, scrub forests, and wide grass patches with undulating terrain ideal for high-speed pursuit predators like cheetahs.
    • Prey Base: Rich in blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chital (Axis axis), nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), and wild boar.
    • Environmental Setting: Moderate rainfall, tributaries of the Narmada River, and dry tropical climate create a balanced hydrological regime.
    • Scientific Endorsement: Recognised by Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and NTCA as among India’s most feasible future cheetah habitats.

    Nauradehi WLS to become 3rd home for Cheetahs in Madhya Pradesh

    Cheetahs and their Reintroduction in India:

    • Overview: The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is the world’s fastest land mammal (80–128 km/h). Two subspecies: African cheetah (A.j. jubatus) across Africa and Asiatic cheetah (A.j. venaticus) confined to Iran (< 30 individuals).
    • Conservation Status: Asiatic subspecies Critically Endangered by the IUCN; global population ≈ 6,500 mature individuals.
    • Extinction in India: Last recorded in Koriya (Chhattisgarh) in 1947; officially declared extinct in 1952 due to hunting and grassland degradation.
    • Project Cheetah (2022): Implemented by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and NTCA with WII support; aims to restore cheetahs in India’s grasslands and revive lost ecological roles.
    • Translocation Phases: Eight cheetahs from Namibia (Sept 2022) and twelve from South Africa (Feb 2023) released at Kuno National Park (Madhya Pradesh).
    • Meta-Population Plan: To establish a connected population across Kuno, Gandhi Sagar, Nauradehi, and Mukundra Hills (Rajasthan) ensuring genetic diversity and landscape-level connectivity.
    • Long-Term Goal: Create a self-sustaining population of 35–40 individuals within 15 years through science-based, landscape-driven restoration.
    • Current Phase: Majority under semi-captive adaptation at Kuno; expansion to Nauradehi and Gandhi Sagar Tiger Reserves planned to reduce crowding and enhance resilience.

     

    [UPSC 2012] Consider the following:
    1. Black-necked crane 2. Cheetah 3. Flying squirrel 4. Snow leopardWhich of the above are naturally found in India?(a) 1, 2 and 3 only  (b) 1, 3 and 4 only*  (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF)

    Why in the News?

    In October 2025, seven countries, Cook Islands, Madagascar, Mexico, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Turkey, and Uganda, secured $5.8 million in grants from the Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF) to promote nature-friendly agriculture.

    What is Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF)?

    • Objective: To assist developing nations in implementing the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF), aimed at halting biodiversity loss by 2030 and restoring ecosystems by 2050.
    • Overview: Established in 2021 during Part 1 of COP-15 at Kunming, China, under China’s presidency of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
    • Initial Contribution: China pledged 1.5 billion yuan (~USD 200 million) as seed funding.
    • Administration: Managed by China’s Ministry of Ecology & Environment, UN Environment Programme (UNEP), and the CBD Secretariat; functions as a Multi-Partner Trust Fund with UNDP and others.
    • Focus Areas:
      • Support for National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs).
      • Ecosystem restoration, invasive-species control, and sustainable agriculture.
      • Empowerment of Indigenous Peoples and local communities in conservation.
    • 2025 Allocation: Released USD 5.8 million via FAO to Cook Islands, Madagascar, Mexico, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Türkiye, and Uganda for biodiversity-linked agriculture and resilience projects.
    • Alignment: Advances KMGBF Target 19 (mobilising USD 200 billion per year by 2030) and helps bridge the USD 700 billion annual global biodiversity finance gap.
    • Global Significance: Serves as a cornerstone of biodiversity finance, complementing the GEF, Green Climate Fund, and Cali Fund (2025) to mobilise global conservation resources.

    India and the KBF:

    • Funding Status: As of 2025, India has not yet received direct KBF funding but remains eligible as a biodiversity-rich developing country and active CBD Party.
    • National Alignment: India’s National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP), National Biodiversity Mission, and Green India Mission align with KBF priorities, especially ecosystem restoration, biodiversity mainstreaming, and community participation.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.

    2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining acces and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Water Pollution in Manipur’s Loktak Lake

    Why in the News?

    A recent Nagaland University study has raised alarms over the deteriorating ecological health of Loktak Lake, India’s largest freshwater lake and a designated Ramsar Site (since 1990) in Manipur.

    Key Findings of the Study:

    • Core Issue: Land-use changes such as agriculture expansion, human settlements, and shifting cultivation (jhum) are deteriorating the water quality of rivers feeding the lake.
    • Sampling and Rivers: Water quality analysis was done across nine major rivers draining into Loktak, linking land-use patterns with water quality indicators such as dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), and temperature.
    • Polluted Rivers:
      • Nambul River recorded the lowest oxygen levels and highest organic contamination, influenced by 47% agricultural land and 11% settlement areas in its sub-catchment.
      • Khuga River had the second poorest quality due to 42% shifting cultivation (jhum).
      • Iril and Thoubal Rivers, flowing through dense forested areas, showed better water quality, underscoring the protective role of forests.

    About Loktak Lake:

    • Overview: Situated in Manipur, about 40 km from Imphal, it is the largest freshwater lake in Northeast India.
    • Unique Feature: Known for its floating biomass called phumdi (in the Meitei language), a mixture of soil, vegetation, and organic matter that supports unique aquatic life.
    • Ecological Significance: The Keibul Lamjao National Park, the world’s only floating national park and habitat of the endangered brow-antlered deer (Sangai), forms an integral part of the lake ecosystem.
    • Hydrology: Fed by nine major rivers, including Khuga, Western, Nambul, Imphal, Kongba, Iril, Thoubal, Heirok, and Sekmai and drained through the Ithai Barrage.
    • Global Recognition:
      • Declared a Ramsar Site in 1990, signifying its international ecological importance.
      • Listed under the Montreux Record in 1993 for undergoing ecological degradation.
    • Biodiversity: Hosts 132 plant species and 428 animal species, supporting fisheries, hydropower generation, transport, and tourism.
    • Socioeconomic Role: Provides livelihoods for local communities through fishing, agriculture, and tourism while regulating floods and water supply in the Imphal valley.
    [UPSC 2015] Which of the following National Parks is unique in being a swamp with floating vegetation that supports a rich biodiversity?

    Options:

    (a) Bhitarkanika National Park

    (b) Keibul Lamjao National Park*

    (c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park

    (d) Sultanpur National Park