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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Groundwater crisis deepens in Karnataka’s hard rock terrain 

    Why in the News?

    In a recent study, researchers from WELL Labs in Chennai studied Aralumallige and Doddathumakuru gram panchayats in the Upper Arkavathy watershed near Bengaluru, and found a sharp drop in groundwater levels caused by intensive farming practices.

    What drives groundwater depletion in the Deccan Plateau?

    • Hard Rock Aquifers with Low Storage Capacity: The Deccan Plateau is underlain by basalt and granite (hard rock aquifers) that have limited porosity. These rely on fractures and weathered zones to store water, making them less efficient in holding groundwater. Eg: In Karnataka, 99% of the area depends on such aquifers, making sustainable storage difficult.
    • Deep Borewell Drilling Alters Natural Recharge: Borewells drilled into granite cause microfractures, allowing rainwater to bypass shallow aquifers and flow deep underground. This disrupts the natural recharge cycle and reduces groundwater retention.  
    • Water-Intensive Agriculture: Cultivation of vegetables, flowers, and exotic crops for urban markets like Bengaluru demands large volumes of groundwater. These crops are not suited to the dry, hard-rock geology of the region.  
    • Encroachment of Traditional Recharge Systems: Lakes and tanks, once used for groundwater recharge, are being encroached upon or neglected. Their discharge channels are blocked, eliminating natural recharge opportunities. Eg: The lake in Aralumallige (Karnataka), once a major recharge source, remained dry in 2022 despite heavy rainfall.

    Why is reliance on borewells unsustainable in rural Karnataka?

    • Rapid Groundwater Depletion and Borewell Failures: Continuous extraction through deep borewells causes the water table to drop, making it harder to access groundwater over time. Eg: In the Upper Arkavathy watershed, the average borewell depth increased from 183m to 321m in just two decades. Over 70% of drinking water wells failed within 10 years of construction.
    • High Financial Burden on Farmers and Panchayats: Drilling deeper borewells costs ₹4–5 lakh, often unaffordable for small farmers, with no guarantee of success. Free electricity for pumping increases electricity consumption and debt for gram panchayats. Eg: Panchayats face mounting electricity bills, diverting funds away from development works to cover power costs.
    • Disruption of Natural Recharge and Local Hydrology: Borewells alter subsurface geology, causing rainwater to bypass shallow aquifers, reducing natural recharge. Eg: In Aralumallige and Doddathumakuru, borewell drilling weakened long-term water retention, contributing to chronic scarcity despite seasonal rains.

    What is the socio-economic impact on local communities and governance?

    • Rising electricity debt: Free power for farmers fuels overuse, pushing gram panchayats into unsustainable debts as they divert development funds to pay power bills.
    • Borewell burden on small farmers: Drilling costs ₹4-5 lakh with no assurance of success, leading many farmers to lease land and migrate to cities.

    What are the issues related to groundwater in Indian?

    • Overexploitation and Depletion: Unregulated extraction of groundwater for agriculture and urban use has led to rapid depletion of water tables. Eg: In parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Karnataka (like Aralumallige), water tables have fallen by over 100 meters in two decades due to borewell dependence.
    • Poor Groundwater Quality: Contamination by nitrates, fluoride, and arsenic poses serious health risks, especially in rural areas. Eg: In Bihar and West Bengal, arsenic contamination affects drinking water; in Karnataka, nitrate levels often exceed safe limits (50 mg/l).
    • Inadequate Data and Poor Management: Lack of real-time monitoring, insufficient local-level data, and fragmented water governance hinder sustainable planning. Eg: Despite groundwater overuse, local panchayats often lack predictive tools to estimate borewell failure or manage recharge zones effectively.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?

    • Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): A nationwide water conservation campaign launched in 2019 to promote rainwater harvesting, recharge structures, and sustainable water use. Eg: In water-stressed blocks of states like Maharashtra and Rajasthan, the JSA promoted check dams and contour trenches to boost groundwater recharge.
    • Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal): A World Bank-assisted scheme launched in 2019 for sustainable groundwater management in 7 states. It focuses on community participation, water budgeting, and crop water use efficiency. Eg: In Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, water user associations have helped monitor and reduce groundwater extraction.
    • Groundwater Regulation by Central Groundwater Authority (CGWA): The CGWA regulates groundwater usage in over-exploited areas by mandating No Objection Certificates (NOCs) for industries and commercial users.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote Sustainable Farming Practices: Shift from water-intensive crops (like paddy, sugarcane) to less water-demanding crops suited to agro-climatic conditions.
    • Strengthen Local Water Governance: Empower Gram Panchayats to manage groundwater through community water budgeting, real-time monitoring, and local recharge efforts.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2019] Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the goods and services tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017.

    Linkage: The article talks about the GST replaced many older taxes like VAT and excise duty, helping create a single national market. Although GST collections have steadily grown—reaching ₹22.08 lakh crore in 2024–25—the revenue from tobacco (about ₹551 billion a year) is much less than the huge cost of tobacco-related health problems, which is ₹2,340 billion every year.

  • Secondary Pollutants constitute up to third of PM2.5 Pollution

    Why in the News?

    A recent study by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) highlights that secondary pollutants, particularly ammonium sulphate, are responsible for nearly one-third of India’s PM2.5 pollution.

    What are Primary Air Pollutants?

    • Definition: Primary air pollutants are directly released into the atmosphere from specific sources like vehicles, coal plants, industries, and biomass burning.
    • Natural and Man-made Origins: They arise from both natural events, such as dust storms, and human activities like fuel combustion.
    • Key Examples:
      • Carbon monoxide (CO) – from incomplete fuel combustion in vehicles and stoves.
      • Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) – from burning sulphur-rich coal, especially in power plants.
      • Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) – from high-temperature fuel combustion in vehicles and factories.
      • Particulate Matter (PM) – includes soot, dust, smoke, and other visible particles.
      • Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) – released from fuel fumes and industrial solvents.
    • Impact: These pollutants are immediately harmful to health and easier to trace to their sources.

    About Secondary Air Pollutants:

    • Definition: Secondary pollutants form in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving primary pollutants and environmental agents like sunlight and water vapour.
    • Formation Factors: Their creation depends on weather, sunlight, and existing pollutants, making them more complex.
    • Key Examples:
      • Ammonium sulphate and nitrate – from SO₂ and NH₃ reacting in the air.
      • Ground-level ozone (O₃) – formed when NOₓ and VOCs react under sunlight.
      • Acid rain components – such as sulfuric and nitric acids.
      • Photochemical smog – a mix of toxic secondary pollutants in urban air.
    • Impact: They contribute heavily to PM2.5 pollution and have long-lasting, widespread effects.

    Highlights from CREA’s Study:

    • Ammonium Sulphate Share: This secondary pollutant accounts for 34% of India’s PM2.5, averaging 11.9 μg/m³ nationwide.
    • Source Link: It forms from SO₂ (mainly from coal plants) reacting with ammonia from fertilisers and waste.
    • FGD Compliance: Only 8% of India’s coal plants have installed flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) units, despite regulations.
    • High Exposure Zones: Within 10 km of coal plants, ammonium sulphate levels are 2.5 times higher than in distant areas.
    • NCAP City Impact: In 130 cities, it contributes 20–43% of PM2.5; in 114 cities, the share exceeds 30%.
    • Other Contributors: Ammonium nitrate and similar secondary compounds form up to 50% of PM2.5 in many places.
    • Policy Suggestions: The study urges rapid FGD rollout, fertiliser reform, and strict pollution control enforcement.
    [UPSC 2013] Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction among-

    Options: (a) NO 2 , O 3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight * (b) CO 2 , O 2 , and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight (c) CO, CO 2 , and NO 2 at low temperature (d) high concentration of NO 2 , O 3 and CO in the evening

     

  • Species in news: Asiatic Wild Dog (Dhole)

    Why in the News?

    The elusive dhole (Cuon alpinus), also known as the Asiatic wild dog, has been rediscovered in Assam’s Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong Landscape (KKAL) after being thought locally extinct.

    About Dhole:

    • Overview: The dhole (Cuon alpinus), also known as the Asiatic wild dog, is a carnivorous mammal from the Canidae family.
    • Habitat: Historically, dholes inhabited southern Russia, Central Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia but are now limited to South and Southeast Asia, including India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and China.
    • Clusters in India: In India, dholes are found mainly in the Western and Eastern Ghats, the Central Indian Landscape, and the Northeast.
    • Key States: According to a 2020 study, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh lead in dhole conservation efforts.
    • Social Behaviour: Dholes live in packs of up to 30 but may also hunt solo or in pairs depending on prey availability.
    • Ecological Role: As predators, dholes help regulate prey populations and maintain ecosystem balance.
    • Conservation Status:
      • IUCN Red List: Endangered
      • CITES: Appendix II (not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so if trade is not closely controlled).
      • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule II (considered important for conservation and are granted a high degree of protection).

    Back2Basics: Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong Landscape (KKAL)

    • Geographic Spread: KKAL is located south of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, comprising Kaziranga National Park (KNP) and the Karbi Anglong Hills.
    • Ecological Importance: KNP is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and part of the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot, known for rich, unmodified ecosystems.
    • Wildlife Corridor: KKAL facilitates seasonal migration during Brahmaputra floods, supporting species movement and survival.
    • Flagship Species: The landscape hosts the world’s largest population of Indian one-horned rhinoceroses, as well as Bengal tigers, elephants, swamp deer, and wild buffalo.
    • B2B Corridor: KKAL forms a vital link in the proposed Bhutan-to-Burma (B2B) Connected Landscape, a 1,400 km biodiversity corridor across northeast India.

     

  • Two billion people don’t have safe drinking water

    Why in the News?

    It’s shocking that 2 billion people around the world still don’t have access to safe drinking water, even though 95% of the global population uses what are called “improved water sources”. This reveals a hidden but serious public health problem.

    IBAT Alliance

    What defines ‘safe drinking water’?

    Safe drinking water refers to water that is free from harmful contaminants such as bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. It must be located on the premises, readily available when needed, and safe to consume without causing health issues.

    How does access vary across populations?

    • Majority Have Access, but Not Always at Home: While nearly 6 billion people have access to drinking water, around 2 billion still lack safe water at home.  Just 156 million people (around 1.4% of the global population) still collect water from unsafe sources like rivers or lakes.  
    • Disparities Exist Across Income and Geography: People in low-income or rural areas are more likely to lack access to safe, on-premises water. In most parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, people still get their water from open sources such as rivers and lakes.

    How does a lack of safe water impact public health in poor countries?

    • Spread of Waterborne Diseases: Unsafe water is a major source of diarrhoeal diseases like cholera, dysentery, polio, and hepatitis A. Over 800,000 deaths annually are attributed to waterborne illnesses, especially in low-income nations with inadequate sanitation.
    • Child Mortality and Malnutrition: Contaminated water contributes to malnutrition, as diarrhoeal diseases hinder nutrient absorption in children. In India, nearly 21% of children under five suffer from wasting (NFHS-5), with poor water and sanitation as key contributors. 
    • Healthcare Burden and Economic Loss: Frequent illness from unsafe water overwhelms fragile public health systems and reduces workforce productivity. In India, poor access to safe water and sanitation leads to an annual GDP loss of over 4% due to health and productivity issues (Ministry of Jal Shakti, 2021). 

    SDG Goal 6 (Clean Water): Progress and challenges since its adoption 

    • Progress in Access to Improved Water Sources: As of recent estimates, 95% of the global population uses an improved water source like piped water, borewells, and springs, even in many low-income countries.
    • Challenge of Household-Level Accessibility: Despite improvements, safe water is often not available at home, requiring people—mostly women—to travel long distances. Around 1.5 billion people still lack on-premise access, which limits reliability and increases the risk of contamination during transport.
    • Polluted water at the point of use: Water may be clean at the source, but it becomes contaminated during collection, storage, or transport.  

    What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis?

    • Desalination Technology: Converts seawater into freshwater by removing salts and impurities using methods like reverse osmosis. Israel’s Sorek Desalination Plant provides 20% of the country’s water supply.
    • Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS): Uses UV rays from sunlight to kill bacteria and viruses in water stored in transparent bottles. It is widely used in rural Africa and India by households.
    • Atmospheric Water Generators (AWG): Extracts moisture from humid air and condenses it into clean drinking water. It was deployed in Rajasthan and UAE for areas with limited water but high humidity.

    What are the steps taken by the Government?

    • Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): Aims to provide functional household tap connections (FHTCs) with safe and adequate drinking water to all rural households by 2024. Eg: As of 2024, over 13 crore rural households have been provided with tap water connections under JJM.
    • Swachh Bharat Mission and Water Quality Monitoring: Focuses on reducing open defecation and water contamination by improving sanitation infrastructure and promoting hygiene.  
    • Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Ensures universal water supply coverage in urban areas, with a focus on poor and underserved households. Under AMRUT, cities like Surat and Nagpur have significantly improved their 24×7 piped water supply networks.

    Way forward

    • Strengthen Last-Mile Delivery through Infrastructure Expansion: Focus on household-level water connections, especially in rural and remote regions, by upgrading existing water supply networks and ensuring regular quality checks.
    • Promote Community-Based Water Management and Awareness: Encourage local governance (Panchayats, SHGs) and water user groups to manage water resources and promote safe water handling practices.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies, citing their key merits and demerits.

    Linkage: The artice talks about the emphasizes that for water to be considered “safe drinking water,” it must be “free from contamination, located at home, and available whenever needed. This question directly addresses the global issue of an “acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater”. This directly aligns with the core problem presented in the article , which states that “two billion people” still do not have safe drinking water in their homes.

  • What is the Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool (IBAT) Alliance?

    Why in the News?

    The IBAT Alliance, a coalition of leading global conservation bodies, announced a record $2.5 million investment in biodiversity data for the year 2024, more than double the amount in 2023.

    About Integrated Biodiversity Assessment Tool (IBAT):

    • What is it: IBAT is a web-based biodiversity mapping and reporting platform launched in 2008 at the IUCN World Conservation Congress.
    • Objective: It was launched to enable the private sector, government, and civil society to integrate biodiversity into planning and risk management processes.
    • Utility: It helps screen biodiversity risks, assess conservation priorities, and align business practices with global frameworks like the UN SDGs and Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
    • Members: The IBAT Alliance is a coalition of 4 major global conservation organizations:
      1. BirdLife International
      2. Conservation International (CI)
      3. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
      4. UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC)
    • Headquarters: David Attenborough Building, Cambridge (UK), with access to global scientific and conservation networks.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to an initiative called ‘The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It is an initiative hosted by UNEP, IMF and World Economic Forum.

    2. It is a global initiative that focuses on drawing attention to the economic benefits of biodiversity.

    3. It presents an approach that can help decision-makers recognize, demonstrate and capture the value of ecosystems and biodiversity.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • All about the revised Green India Mission to increase forest cover, address climate change

    Why in the News?

    The revised plan for the Green India Mission (GIM), released by the Centre on June 17, is an important step forward in India’s fight against climate change.

    What are the achievements of the Green India Mission since its launch in 2014?

    • Large-scale Afforestation Activities: GIM facilitated tree plantation and afforestation across 11.22 million hectares between 2015–16 and 2020–21. Eg: Afforestation under state schemes in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana helped increase green cover.
    • Support to Vulnerable States: Funds were allocated based on ecological vulnerability and restoration potential. Eg: ₹624.71 crore released to 18 states between 2019–24, with ₹575.55 crore utilised.
    • Carbon Sequestration Contribution: Contributed to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.29 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent between 2005–2021. Eg: Forest restoration in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh aided national climate goals.
    • Integration with Climate Goals: GIM aligned with India’s international commitment to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030. Eg: Activities under GIM complement India’s UNFCCC goals on land restoration and carbon capture.
    • Livelihood Enhancement through Forest-Based Interventions: Helped improve livelihoods of forest-dependent communities via sustainable forestry practices. Eg: Community plantation models in Odisha created jobs and promoted conservation.

    What are the key elements of the revised Green India Mission roadmap?

    • Landscape-level restoration: Focus on saturation-based, area-specific restoration in vulnerable landscapes like the Aravallis, Western Ghats, Himalayas, and mangroves.
    • Integration with flagship projects: Syncing with initiatives like the Aravalli Green Wall project (cost: Rs 16,053 crore, coverage: 6.45 mha across 29 districts and 4 states).
    • Aravalli protection: Targeting 8 lakh hectares for forest, water system and grassland rejuvenation to curb sandstorm intrusions and pollution in NCR and Punjab.
    • Western Ghats focus: Addressing illegal mining and deforestation through afforestation and abandoned mine rehabilitation.

    Why was the Green India Mission’s roadmap revised?

    • To Address On-Ground Climate Impacts: The revision was made to respond to changing climate conditions and the increasing urgency of land degradation and desertification. Eg: Inclusion of the Aravalli Green Wall Project to counter desert expansion from the Thar region.
    • To Incorporate Feedback from States and Scientific Bodies: The revised plan reflects inputs from implementing states and scientific institutions, ensuring region-specific solutions. Eg: Feedback led to the addition of eco-restoration of abandoned mining areas in the Western Ghats.
    • To Focus on Region-Specific Restoration Practices: The update prioritises landscape-specific and ecologically appropriate restoration in vulnerable ecosystems. Eg: Special emphasis on Himalayas, mangroves, and degraded zones for carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation.

    What key regions will it now focus on?

    Who is implementing the Green Wall project?

    • Central Government Leadership: The Centre (Government of India) is spearheading the initiative, allocating funding and coordinating implementation across states. Eg: The project’s ₹16,053 crore budget and planning is directed by central agencies in collaboration with local authorities.
    • Collaboration with States and Scientific Institutions: Implementation involves three states (Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat), one UT (Delhi)  and guidance from the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), using ecological data to target 12 degradation gaps in the Aravalli range. Eg: WII studies identified dust-prone regions; restoration covers 8 lakh hectares across 29 districts in these states.

    How will GIM address land degradation and carbon sequestration?

    • Restoration of Degraded and Open Forests: GIM focuses on restoring impaired open forests, which is a cost-effective and high-impact method for carbon dioxide (CO₂) sequestration. Eg: As per the Forest Survey of India (FSI), restoring 15 million hectares can sequester 1.89 billion tonnes of CO₂.
    • Region-Specific Ecological Interventions: The revised roadmap includes landscape-specific afforestation and eco-restoration in vulnerable areas like the Aravallis, Western Ghats, Himalayas, and mangroves. Eg: Under the Aravalli Green Wall Project, 8 lakh hectares will be restored to combat desertification and reduce dust pollution.
    • Expansion of Natural Carbon Sinks: GIM aligns with India’s climate commitment to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO₂ by 2030. Eg: By integrating schemes and intensifying plantation efforts, GIM aims to expand forest and tree cover up to 24.7 million hectares, capturing 3.39 billion tonnes of CO₂.

    Way forward: 

    • Integrated Landscape-Based Planning: Adopt a holistic, ecosystem-specific approach by aligning GIM with other environmental programs (e.g., CAMPA, MGNREGS) for coordinated restoration and afforestation efforts.
    • Enhanced Monitoring and Community Participation: Use technology (GIS, remote sensing) for real-time progress tracking, while empowering local communities and forest-dependent groups for sustainable upkeep and livelihood generation.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2020] Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change.

    Linkage: This question directly relates to the core objectives and context of the Green India Mission (GIM). The GIM, launched in 2014, is a crucial component of India’s efforts to combat climate change by increasing forest and tree cover and restoring degraded ecosystems. The revised roadmap for GIM emphasizes not only increasing and restoring forest and green cover but also tackling land degradation and desertification, which are significant environmental issues in India.

  • First Assembly of the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)

    Why in the News?

    The first Assembly of the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) was held on June 16, 2025, in New Delhi, with the Union Environment Minister presiding over the session.

    About the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)

    • Overview: It is a multi-country, multi-agency alliance of 95 countries, both range and non-range, dedicated to the conservation of big cats and their habitats.
    • Launch: Proposed by PM Modi in 2019, the alliance was officially launched in April 2023 to mark Project Tiger’s 50th anniversary.
    • Conservation Focus: IBCA seeks to protect and restore populations of 7 big cats: tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, cheetah, jaguar, and puma.
    • Core Functions: The alliance works through advocacy, knowledge exchange, promotion of eco-tourism, and resource mobilisation.
    • Conflict Resolution: It aims to reduce human-wildlife conflict and restore degraded habitats critical to big cat survival.
    • Global Participation: IBCA brings together 95 range countries from:
      • Asia: India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Iran
      • Africa: Kenya, Congo, Ghana
      • Americas: Brazil, Ecuador, United States
      • Europe/Central Asia: Russia, Kazakhstan
    • Members: Bhutan, Eswatini, Cambodia, Guinea, India, Liberia, Nicaragua, Somalia and Suriname have deposited an instrument of ratification.
    • Institutional Structure: It is governed by a General Assembly, an elected Council, and a secretariat led by a Secretary-General.
    • Permanent Base: The ratification of the headquarters agreement has enabled IBCA to set up its permanent headquarters in India.

    India’s Role:

    • Species Richness: India is home to 5 of the 7 big cats—the tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, and cheetah—and holds 70% of the world’s tiger population.
    • Funding Commitment: The Indian government has committed ₹150 crore (2023–2028) and is attracting additional global contributions to support the alliance’s goals.
    • Conservation Leadership: India plays a leading global role in big cat protection, setting benchmarks in wildlife conservation and ecological stewardship.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.

    2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.

    3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 2

     

  • [16th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: What are flue gas desulphurisation units?

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Linkage:  SO2 as “one of the major greenhouse gases that cause global warming”. Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units are designed specifically to remove SO2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels. Therefore, FGD units serve as a direct “control measure to bring down the level of greenhouse gases” as addressed by the question.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  India’s top science advisory group has suggested ending the 2015 rule that made it compulsory for all coal-based power plants to install Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units. This has raised serious concerns because FGDs are key to reducing sulphur dioxide (SO₂) pollution, which causes 15% of India’s PM2.5 levels and leads to breathing problems, environmental damage, and climate change. Although installing FGDs is expensive (₹1.2 crore per MW), experts warn that dropping the plan could harm public health and clean air efforts. Worryingly, only 39 of 537 plants have installed FGDs, and deadlines keep getting pushed back.

     Today’s editorial focuses on the analysis of the installation of the Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units in a thermal power plant. This content is very relevant to GS Paper III (Environment, Science and Technology) Mains.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    A group of experts, led by Principal Scientific Advisor Ajay Sood, has recently suggested that India should cancel the 10-year-old rule that requires all coal-based thermal power plants to install Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units.

    Why India should cancel the 10-Year-Old Rule (2015 FGD Mandate)?

    • High Installation Cost Burden: Installing FGD units costs around ₹1.2 crore per MW, which can significantly raise power generation costs and electricity tariffs. Eg: For 97,000 MW of new capacity, the cost would be about ₹97,000 crore, making power less affordable.
    • Delayed and Poor Implementation: Despite the 2015 rule, compliance has been dismal—only 39 out of 537 plants had FGDs installed by 2025. Eg: Repeated deadline extensions (up to 2029) show lack of feasibility and institutional capacity.
    • Limited Local Air Quality Impact in Some Areas: In certain regions, the contribution of SO₂ emissions from TPPs to PM2.5 levels is relatively small. Eg: In Delhi, most air pollution comes from other sources like vehicles and construction, so FGDs at distant plants may offer minimal benefit.

    What is a Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) unit?

    • FGD units are devices used in coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs) to remove sulphur dioxide (SO₂) from flue gas. Flue gas is a byproduct of burning fossil fuels and contains pollutants like SO₂, CO₂, NOx, and particulate matter.
    • Three common FGD technologies:
      • Dry sorbent injection (adds powdered limestone to flue gas).
      • Wet limestone treatment (reacts SO₂ with limestone slurry to form gypsum).
      • Sea water scrubbing (used near coastal areas).

    How does it reduce SO₂ emissions from thermal power plants?

    • Chemical Neutralisation Reaction: FGD units use alkaline substances like limestone or lime to react with acidic SO₂ in flue gas, converting it into stable, non-toxic compounds. Eg: In wet limestone FGD, SO₂ reacts with limestone slurry to form gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O), a harmless industrial byproduct.
    • Efficient Scrubbing Techniques: Technologies like wet scrubbers or dry sorbent injection physically remove SO₂ from exhaust gases before release into the atmosphere. Eg: Dry sorbent injection sprays powdered lime into the flue gas stream, which binds with SO₂ and is later captured by filters.
    • Controlled Emission Discharge: FGD ensures that the treated flue gas released into the environment has significantly lower SO₂ levels, complying with environmental norms. Eg: Power plants near coasts use sea water FGD, where sea water absorbs SO₂ and is then treated before being discharged safely.

    Why are SO₂ emissions harmful?

    • Respiratory and Health Issues: Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) irritates the respiratory system, causing problems like asthma, bronchitis, and lung damage, especially in children and the elderly. Eg: Studies in urban industrial areas show a direct link between SO₂ exposure and increased hospital admissions for respiratory illnesses.
    • Formation of Secondary Particulate Matter (PM2.5): SO₂ reacts in the atmosphere to form fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which can penetrate deep into lungs and enter the bloodstream, posing serious health risks. Eg: According to studies, 80% of PM2.5 from coal combustion is due to secondary particles formed from SO₂.
    • Contribution to Acid Rain: SO₂ combines with water vapor in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid, leading to acid rain that damages soil, crops, forests, and aquatic ecosystems. Eg: Regions near coal-fired plants have reported acidic lakes and damaged crops due to acid rain deposition.
    • Environmental Degradation: High SO₂ levels can corrode buildings, especially monuments made of limestone or marble, and degrade overall air and water quality. Eg: The Taj Mahal has shown signs of yellowing, partly attributed to SO₂-related pollution.
    • Climate and Visibility Impact: Though SO₂ itself is not a greenhouse gas, it leads to formation of aerosols, affecting cloud formation, reducing visibility, and causing climate imbalance. Eg: In industrial belts, hazy skies and temperature variations are linked to SO₂-derived aerosols.

    What is the status of FGD installation in India (2025)?

    • Low Overall Commissioning: Only about 39 out of 537 thermal power plant units (≈ 19,430 MW capacity) have commissioned FGD systems, representing ~11% of the total required capacity. Eg: Just 13 out of 35 units within 300 km of Delhi have installed FGDs, showing slow progress in high-pollution zones.
    • Stalled Projects and Delays: Contracts have been awarded for about 238 units (~105,200 MW), and 139 units (~42,847 MW) are still in the tendering stage, but many projects remain stalled. Eg: Some plants, especially near Delhi, may take up to 36 months to complete FGD installation due to regulatory and logistical hurdles.
    • Repeated Deadline Extensions: Compliance deadlines have been extended multiple times: from 2017 → 2024 → 2026–2029, depending on the location and plant category. Eg: The Ministry of Environment has pushed back deadlines for thermal plants in Delhi NCR without strict justification, raising concerns about enforcement.

    Way forward: 

    • Prioritised FGD Installation: Expedite FGD implementation in high-emission and densely populated zones to balance cost and health impact.
    • Policy and Financial Support: Provide targeted subsidies or incentives to TPPs and integrate FGD costs into long-term tariff planning for smoother adoption.

  • Fire on waters India’s maritime firefighting capabilities are standing up to the test

    Why in the News?

    The fire on MV Wan Hai 503 near Kannur exposed India’s weak maritime safety. With over 140 hazardous containers onboard, it posed a major risk during the monsoon, threatening the environment and lives.

    What are the major types of peacetime maritime accidents faced by the Indian coast?

    • Sinking of merchant ships – leads to cargo loss, traffic disruption, and environmental damage.
    • Fire onboard vessels – threatens coastal life, property, and marine ecology.
    • Oil spills – have long-lasting environmental impacts and are difficult to contain.

    Why was the MV Wan Hai 503 incident a significant maritime safety challenge?

    • Presence of Hazardous Cargo: Over 140 of the 1,754 containers onboard contained hazardous materials, posing a high risk of toxic release and chemical explosions. Eg: Multiple colors of smoke (brown, white, grey, black) indicated different substances burning simultaneously.
    • Proximity to Coastline During Fire: The ship began drifting dangerously toward the Indian coast near Azhikkal, Kerala, during monsoon rough seas, increasing the threat of coastal disaster. Eg: The tow rope initially snapped under pressure, risking further drift and collision with the shore.
    • Complexity of Fire-Fighting and Towing: Fire-fighting was complicated by weather conditions and ship instability, requiring precise coordination. Eg: An Indian Navy helicopter had to airdrop a salvage team to pass a steel wire rope for safe towing to deeper waters.
    • Multi-Agency Emergency Response Needed: The incident required rapid coordination between the Indian Navy, Coast Guard, and the ship owner’s team using tugs. Eg: The ship was finally stabilized 45 nautical miles offshore, where the water depth was nearly one kilometre, minimizing risk to coastal areas.

    How did Indian agencies respond to the fire on MV Wan Hai 503?

    • Rapid firefighting efforts amid adverse conditions: The Indian Coast Guard initiated firefighting operations despite rough seas caused by the monsoon. Eg: Firefighting continued while the ship drifted dangerously toward the Kerala coast, with thick smoke from burning hazardous cargo.
    • Coordinated aerial and naval action: The Indian Navy deployed a helicopter to airdrop a salvage team onto the ship and deliver a steel wire rope to secure it. Eg: The steel rope enabled safe towing after the initial tow rope snapped due to tension and sea conditions.
    • Strategic towing and risk mitigation: Indian agencies, in coordination with the ship owner’s agents and tugboats, towed the vessel 45 nautical milesaway from the coast to prevent environmental and coastal damage. Eg: The vessel was moved to deeper waters (1 km depth) to minimize the impact of any further explosion or sinking.

    Why are gas-carrying and oil-laden ships considered severe fire and explosion hazards?

    • High flammability of cargo: Gas and crude oil are highly combustible, making these ships extremely prone to fires and explosions if containment fails. Eg: Even a minor spark can ignite vapours from gas or oil, causing catastrophic fires onboard.
    • Large volume of hazardous material: These vessels carry enormous quantities of flammable substances, which amplify the scale of damage during accidents. Eg: The New Diamond VLCC was carrying 2,70,000 tonnes of crude oil when it caught fire off Colombo in 2020.
    • Critical maritime chokepoint risks: Accidents involving such vessels at strategic locations like the Suez Canal or Strait of Malacca can disrupt global trade and cause widespread damage. Eg: A gas carrier explosion at a maritime chokepoint could halt international shipping routes, impacting global supply chains.

    What are the key areas India needs to strengthen in maritime fire-fighting and salvage operations? (Way forward)

    • Rapid Salvage Capability: India must improve its ability for quick salvage of sinking or damaged vessels to prevent cargo loss, environmental damage, and navigation disruption. Eg: During the MV Wan Hai 503 incident, timely towing by the Indian Navy helped avert a coastal disaster, but highlighted the need for faster salvage deployment.
    • Multi-agency Coordination: Effective response to maritime emergencies requires seamless coordination among the Coast Guard, Navy, port authorities, and private salvage firms. Eg: The successful control of the New Diamond VLCC fire involved joint efforts from Indian and Sri Lankan naval forces.
    • Advanced Fire-fighting Infrastructure: India needs to upgrade fire-fighting equipment on patrol vessels and at key ports, especially for handling hazardous cargo and oil/gas fires. Eg: The Coast Guard’s patrol vessels are now fitted with basic fire-fighting systems, but large-scale fires require specialised ships and foam-based suppression systems.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2023] What are the ways in which oil pollution affects the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

    Linkage: Maritime Accident Response” explicitly talks about the “oil spills” as one of the three major peacetime maritime accidents that the Indian coast needs protection against. It also states that oil is a “more severe fire hazard” than hazardous cargo, especially in the context of gas-carrying merchant ships. This question directly addresses the environmental and national impact of oil pollution, which is a significant aspect of maritime accidents and firefighting efforts.

  • Centre sets up Forest Rights Act (FRA) Cells

    Why in the News?

    Under the Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA), the Ministry of Tribal Affairs has sanctioned the creation of District and State-level Forest Rights Act (FRA) Cells across 18 States and Union Territories.

    About Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA)

    • Launch: It was launched in October 2024 by Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
    • Mission Goal: The initiative aims to promote holistic development of tribal communities by addressing gaps in infrastructure, livelihoods, education, and health.
    • Geographical Reach: The program covers over 63,843 tribal-dominated villages across 30 States/UTs, 2,911 blocks, and 549 districts, benefitting over 5 crore tribal people.
    • Funding: The total budget is ₹79,156 crore, with a central share of ₹56,333 crore and a state share of ₹22,823 crore.
    • Inspiration: DAJGUA is modelled after the PM-JANMAN Scheme, which focuses specifically on the welfare of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).

    What are FRA Cells under DAJGUA?

    • Overview: FRA Cells are administrative support units created under the Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA) to assist in implementing the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006.
    • Funding Support: These cells are funded directly by the Union Ministry of Tribal Affairs, marking the first instance of central government financing a structured FRA support mechanism.
    • Objective: The core aim of FRA Cells is to help tribal claimants and Gram Sabhas prepare and submit forest rights claims, especially in tribal-dominated districts.
    • Goal: FRA Cells aim to reduce delays and rejections in forest rights applications by improving documentation quality and data management.

    Key Features of FRA Cells:

    • Coverage Scale: As of 2025, a total of 324 district-level and 17 state-level FRA Cells have been approved across 18 States and Union Territories.
    • Funding Allocation: Each district-level cell is provided ₹8.67 lakh, and each state-level cell receives ₹25.85 lakh, funded as Grants-in-Aid General by the Centre.
    • Operational Functions: FRA Cells assist in document collection, Gram Sabha resolution drafting, conversion of forest villages into revenue villages, land demarcation, digitization, and record uploads to official portals.
    • Limitations: FRA Cells do NOT interfere with the decision-making powers of statutory authorities like Gram Sabhas, Sub-Divisional Level Committees (SDLCs), or District Level Committees (DLCs).
    • Leading States: The highest number of FRA Cells have been approved in Madhya Pradesh (55), Chhattisgarh (30), Telangana (29), Maharashtra (26), Assam (25), and Jharkhand (24).

    Back2Basics: Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

    • Overview: The law is officially called The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
    • Objectives: FRA seeks to recognize and vest forest land rights to Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) who have traditionally depended on forests but lacked formal land ownership.
    • Major Provisions: It provides for:
      • Ownership of Minor Forest Produce (MFP)
      • Community rights such as grazing and water use
      • Habitat rights for PVTGs
      • Community Forest Resource (CFR) rights to manage and protect forests
    • Institutional Framework: The Act is implemented through a multi-tier system consisting of Gram Sabhas, Forest Rights Committees (FRCs), SDLCs, DLCs, and State Monitoring Committees.
    • Significance: FRA provides legal protection from evictions, supports livelihoods, and enhances local forest governance through community participation and legal recognition.

     

    [UPSC 2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006?

    Options: (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj (c) Ministry of Rural Development (d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs*