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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Urbanisation and the challenge of ideal transit solutions 

    Why in the News?

    India’s path to becoming a “Viksit Bharat” by 2047 relies on transforming its urban areas, as over 60% of the population is expected to live in cities by the 2060s.

    What are the main challenges India faces in achieving efficient urban mobility?

    • Insufficient Public Transport Coverage: Only 37% of urban residents have easy access to public transport, compared to over 50% in countries like Brazil and China. Eg: Many Tier-2 cities still lack proper metro or bus services.
    • Shortage of Urban Buses: India needs about 2,00,000 urban buses, but currently has only 35,000 (including e-buses). Eg: Overcrowded buses in Delhi and Bengaluru during peak hours show the supply-demand gap.
    • Poor Last-Mile Connectivity: Even when metros are available, the cost and difficulty of reaching homes or offices from stations reduce usage. Eg: Metro commuters in Mumbai often rely on expensive auto-rickshaws for last-mile travel.
    • High Cost and Low Returns from Metro Projects: Metros are expensive and slow to build, with lower-than-expected ridership, making cost recovery hard. Eg: Many phases of the Jaipur Metro remain underutilized due to low footfall.
    • Limited Government Subsidies and Private Investment: Unlike developed nations, India cannot afford large recurring subsidies, and private investment is low due to uncertain returns. Eg: E-bus projects in Pune face delays due to funding and maintenance challenges.

    Why is the current investment in metro and e-bus infrastructure falling short?

    • High Cost and Low Ridership: Metro projects involve huge capital and operational costs, but often fail to attract enough passengers to recover expenses. Eg: The Lucknow Metro struggles with low ridership despite high investment.
    • Fare Sensitivity and Last-Mile Issues: People are price-sensitive, and poor last-mile connectivity discourages use of metros and e-buses. Eg: In Hyderabad, a small hike in metro fares led to a drop in daily commuters.
    • Unsustainable Operational Models: E-buses have high replacement and maintenance costs, making them financially unviable in the long run. Eg: Many cities like Nagpur face challenges maintaining their e-bus fleets without subsidies.

    How do trams compare to e-buses in terms of long-term cost-effectiveness?

    • Higher Long-Term Profitability: Trams show about 45% profitability over their typical 70-year life cycle, making them more financially sustainable. Eg: European cities like Vienna continue to expand tram networks due to long-term cost benefits.
    • Lower Operational and Replacement Costs: Trams require less frequent replacements and have lower running costs compared to e-buses, which face high battery and maintenance expenses. Eg: Kolkata’s tram system, though outdated, still operates at a lower cost than many new e-bus services.
    • Better Scalability and Climate Alignment: Trams are more scalable in dense cities and better aligned with climate goals due to zero tailpipe emissions and use of electricity from clean sources. Eg: The planned Kochi tram project is being promoted as a sustainable alternative to road-based transport.

    Which schemes support urban transport in the Budget 2024?

    • PM e-Bus Sewa – Payment Security Mechanism: Aims to deploy and ensure reliable operations of 10,000 urban buses, including electric ones. Eg: Cities like Ahmedabad are using this to expand their bus fleet and improve service reliability.
    • PM e-Drive Scheme (PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement): Supports procurement of 14,000 e-buses, 1,10,000 e-rickshaws, as well as e-trucks and e-ambulances. Eg: New Delhi is using funds to order e-ambulances and expand its e-rickshaw fleet under this initiative.

    Way forward: 

    • Integrated Multi-Modal Transport Planning: Develop seamless connectivity between metro, buses, e-rickshaws, trams, and non-motorised transport (NMT) to reduce last-mile gaps and improve user convenience.
    • Prioritise Cost-Effective and Sustainable Modes: Encourage trams and trolleybuses in high-density corridors through life-cycle cost analysis, while ensuring targeted subsidies for low-income commuters and investment in green fuels like bio-CNG and hydrogen.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2019] How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of India?

    Linkage: The article talks about different types of public transport like buses, metros, trams, and trolleybuses, and how important it is to choose options that are affordable and effective. It stresses the need for a strong and efficient public transport system to deal with the growing challenges of travel in cities. As more people move to cities, the article says urban areas will play a key role in driving India’s economic growth, making good public transport even more important.

     

  • AviList 2025: World’s First Unified Global Bird Checklist 

    Why in the News?

    The Working Group on Avian Checklists has released AviList, the world’s first unified global bird checklist to standardize bird classification and support global research and conservation.

    What is AviList?

    • Overview: AviList is the first unified global checklist of bird species, officially launched on June 12, 2025.
    • Who developed it: It was developed by the Working Group on Avian Checklists, with representatives from BirdLife International, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, the International Ornithologists’ Union, the American Ornithologists’ Society, and Avibase.
    • Purpose: The checklist aims to eliminate confusion caused by conflicting taxonomies and to improve global coordination in bird research and conservation.
    • Standalone feature: AviList replaces separate resources like the IOC World Bird List and the Clements Checklist with a single, consensus-based taxonomy.
    • Accessibility: It is freely available at www.avilist.org and will be updated annually to reflect the latest scientific consensus.
    • Target Users: AviList supports ornithologists, birdwatchers, conservationists, researchers, and policymakers globally.

    Key Features of AviList:

    • Standardized Taxonomy: Combines inputs from global and regional checklists to ensure taxonomic consistency.
    • Comprehensive Coverage: Lists 11,131 species, 19,879 subspecies, 2,376 genera, 252 families, and 46 orders.
    • Consensus-Driven Process: Taxonomic decisions are made through structured milestone assessments and expert committee voting.
    • Transparency in Changes: Provides clear justifications for taxonomic updates, especially those involving disputed species.
    • Living Document: Designed to evolve continuously with new scientific discoveries and updates.
    • Conservation Impact: Helps improve biodiversity assessments and conservation planning by clarifying species boundaries.
    [UPSC 2015] With reference to an organization known as ‘BirdLife International’, consider the following statements:

    1. It is a Global Partnership of Conservation Organizations.

    2.The concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’ originated from this organization.

    3. It identifies the sites known/referred to as ‘Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas’.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Species in news: Himalayan long-tailed myotis

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have identified a new-to-science bat species, the Himalayan long-tailed myotis (Myotis himalaicus), from the Western Himalayas.

    Species in news: Himalayan long-tailed myotis

    About Himalayan Long-Tailed Myotis:

    • New Species: It is a newly described bat species from the Western Himalayas.
    • Discovery: It was first recorded in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, in 2021 and matched with an earlier specimen collected in Pakistan in 1998.
    • Class: It belongs to the Myotis frater complex, which includes bats found across East and Central Asia.

    Key Features:

    • Habitat: Found in high-altitude forests such as deodar, pine, and cedar.
    • Distribution: Likely found across India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
    • Tail: Notably features a long tail, setting it apart within the Myotis genus.
    • Rarity: Considered uncommon, with limited sightings.
    • Identification: Confirmed through morphological traits and genetic analysis.
    • Scientific Significance: Enhances understanding of bat diversity in the Himalayas and supports transboundary biodiversity research.
    [UPSC 2009] In the context of Indian wildlife, the flying fox is a:

    Options: (a) Bat* (b) Kite (c) Stork (d) Vulture

     

  • [9th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: New study makes controversial weather-tweaking idea more realistic

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Linkage: The article highlight that the world needs to “lower its dependence on fossil fuels” because “greenhouse gas emissions are increasing worldwide,” leading to “rising surface temperatures”. The discussion around Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) in the sources is presented as a controversial technology proposed to “directly cool the planet rather than bank on reducing emissions alone” as a means of “reducing the impacts of climate change

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The world needs to rely less on fossil fuels, but progress has been slow because of problems like war, poverty, and rising prices. As a result, greenhouse gas emissions are still going up. To deal with this, some scientists suggest using new technologies to cool the Earth directly, instead of only focusing on cutting emissions. One such method is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI), where tiny particles are sprayed into the upper atmosphere to block sunlight and reduce warming.

    Today’s editorial discusses the Stratospheric Aerosol Injection technique, a key topic for GS Paper III (Science, Technology & Environment), highlighting its potential, challenges, and relevance to climate change mitigation efforts.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    A recent study in the journal Earth’s Future shared a new idea that could make SAI cheaper and easier to use, even though many people are still against it.

    What was the new idea? 

    • Use of Existing Aircraft: Instead of waiting a decade and spending billions to build special high-altitude planes, the study proposes modifying existing aircraft (like the Boeing 777F) to spray aerosols at lower altitudes.
    • Low-Altitude Injection in Polar Regions: The study suggests carrying out aerosol injections at lower altitudes (around 13 km) in polar and extratropical regions, where the stratosphere is more easily reachable. This approach is more cost-effective, technically simpler, and can be implemented sooner.

    What is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)?

    SAI is a proposed method of cooling the planet by injecting tiny reflective particles (aerosols) into the stratosphere. It is inspired by volcanic eruptions, which naturally cool the Earth by spewing particles that reflect sunlight. These aerosols reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, creating a cooling effect.

    Why is the spraying of aerosol needed?

    • To Reflect Sunlight and Cool the Planet: Aerosols (like sulphur dioxide) reflect some of the sun’s rays back into space, reducing the heat reaching Earth’s surface. Eg: The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption released sulphur dioxide, cooling Earth by about 0.5°C for over a year.
    • To Temporarily Reduce Global Warming Effects: SAI can lower atmospheric temperatures temporarily, helping to reduce severe climate effects like heatwaves, ice melt, and sea-level rise. Eg: A study showed spraying 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide at 13 km altitude could cool the planet by 0.6°C.
    • To Buy Time for Emissions Reductions and Climate Adaptation: While long-term solutions like clean energy are built, SAI could provide a temporary buffer against extreme climate impacts. Eg: It could delay serious effects like crop failure or habitat loss, allowing time for sustainable reforms.

    Why is low-altitude SAI seen as cost-effective?

    • No Need for Specialized Aircraft: Low-altitude SAI can be conducted using existing aircraft, avoiding the high costs of developing planes that fly above 20 km. Eg: Standard jets like the Boeing 777F can reach stratospheric levels in polar regions, making deployment more affordable.
    • Technically Less Challenging: Operating at lower altitudes reduces technical complexity, such as extreme temperature and pressure challenges faced at higher elevations. Eg: Modifying existing jets with pressurized tanks is easier than designing new high-altitude aircraft.
    • Faster Implementation Timeline: It enables quicker deployment, avoiding the 10-year delay and multi-billion dollar investment needed for high-altitude SAI systems. Eg: Using current infrastructure, SAI programs could begin much earlier to address urgent climate risks.

    Where is low-altitude injection feasible and why?

    • Feasible in Polar and Extratropical Regions: In these regions, the stratosphere starts at lower altitudes, making it accessible to standard aircraft. Eg: Over the Arctic or Antarctic, the tropopause (boundary between troposphere and stratosphere) is around 8–13 km, suitable for existing jets.
    • Infeasible Near the Equator: At equatorial regions, the stratosphere begins at 18 km or higher, which is beyond the reach of most commercial or military jets. Eg: Areas like Indonesia or the Amazon basin would require specially built aircraft for SAI.
    • Altitude Determines Aerosol Effectiveness: While higher altitude injections last longer in the atmosphere, lower altitude in polar zones allows SAI to be conducted with less cost and effort. Eg: Studies show that even at 13 km altitude in polar spring and summer, SAI can cool the planet by ~0.6°C with 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide.

    How does the use of existing aircraft like the Boeing 777F influence the implementation of SAI technology?

    • Reduces Deployment Costs: Using existing aircraft avoids the high capital expenditure needed to design and build specialized high-altitude jets. Eg: The Boeing 777F, a widely available cargo aircraft, can be adapted for SAI at lower stratospheric levels, cutting costs significantly.
    • Speeds Up Implementation: Existing jets can be modified and deployed faster, enabling earlier testing and potential use of SAI to address urgent climate risks. Eg: Building high-altitude aircraft may take nearly a decade, but using modified commercial planes could allow operations to start much sooner.
    • Requires Feasible Technical Modifications: Though not originally built for aerosol spraying, planes like the Boeing 777F can be retrofitted with specialized equipment. Eg: An August 2024 study proposed adding insulated double-walled pressurized tanks to safely carry and release sulphur dioxide.

    What are the Risks and Controversies of SAI?

    • Environmental and Health Side Effects: SAI could lead to acid rain, delayed ozone recovery, and unknown ecological disruptions due to aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Eg: Sulphur dioxide, commonly proposed for SAI, can form sulphuric acid in the atmosphere, harming ecosystems and human health.
    • Uneven Global Effects: SAI’s cooling impact may not be uniform worldwide, potentially benefiting some regions while worsening droughts, rainfall patterns, or crop yields in others. Eg: Cooling could be stronger in polar regions, while tropical areas, which face the worst climate impacts, may not benefit equally.
    • Governance and Ethical Concerns: SAI affects the entire planet, raising questions about who decides when, where, and how it’s used. It may lead to geopolitical tensions and misuse. Eg: A single country unilaterally injecting aerosols could trigger international disputes, especially if neighbouring regions suffer unintended consequences.

    Way forward: 

    • Establish a Global Governance Framework: International collaboration is essential to regulate research, testing, and potential deployment of SAI, ensuring transparency, accountability, and consent from all affected nations.
    • Focus on Complementary Climate Strategies: SAI should be treated as a temporary, supplementary tool, not a replacement for emission reduction. Massive investments must continue in renewables, carbon capture, and adaptation strategies. 

  • Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM)

    Why in the News?

    IIT Kharagpur has made a web app called Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM) to help people choose travel routes that are not just fast but also have cleaner air and better energy use.

    About DRUM:

    • Purpose: It is a navigation tool that prioritises air quality and energy efficiency, offering a greener alternative to traditional mapping apps.
    • Data Usage: DRUM uses real-time data on air pollution and traffic conditions to recommend optimal routes.
    • Sources: Pollution information is collected from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the World Air Quality Index.

    Important Features:

    • Routing Logic: DRUM applies a rank-based elimination method that prioritizes time, followed by distance, pollution exposure, and energy use.
    • Technical Tools: The app uses GraphHopper for route generation and Mapbox for live traffic updates.
    • Route Options: Users can choose from 5 routes — shortest, fastest, least pollution (LEAP), least energy use (LECR), and a balanced suggested route.
    • Live Updates: It retrieves real-time route data when a query is entered, not through scheduled updates.
    • Performance: In Delhi trials, the LEAP route cut pollution exposure by over 50%, and the LECR route reduced energy use by up to 28%.
    • Non-Motorized Inclusion: DRUM will expand to serve cyclists, pedestrians, and other non-motorized users.
    • Predictive Upgrade: DRUM 2.0, currently in development, will use machine learning to forecast pollution and traffic and recommend best routes and departure times.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:

    I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None

     

  • [7th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Water management in India needs a new course

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2013] Constitutional mechanisms to resolve the inter-state water disputes have failed to address and solve the problems. Is the failure due to structural or process inadequacy or both? Discuss.

    Linkage: India’s water management problems are explicitly stated to be a result of a “fragmented and sectoral approach”. This contrasts sharply with the need for a holistic “new course.” The existing situation is problematic because “rivers and other waterbodies are often interstate and multiple political jurisdictions are involved in administering the same waterbody”.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  In 2025, global water governance takes a historic turn as the United Nations declares it the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation and launches the Decade of Action on Cryospheric Science (2025–2034). These initiatives, aligned with World Water Day 2025 and World Day for Glaciers (March 21), focus directly on the vital connections between mountain glaciers, freshwater, and ocean ecosystems. They promote the “Source-to-Sea (S2S)” approach, which integrates water governance from glacial sources all the way to ocean outlets, acknowledging their ecological and hydrological continuity.

    Today’s editorial will talk about water governance in India and the world. It will help with GS Paper I (Geography), GS Paper II (Policy Making) and GS Paper III (Environment).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Scientists and decision-makers need to pay attention to the Source to Sea (S2S) approach.

    What is the theme of World Water Day 2025?

    • Theme: Glacier Preservation
    • 2025 is also declared the International Year of Glaciers Preservation by the United Nations.
    • Marks the start of a Decade of Action on Cryospheric Science (2025-2034).

    Why is it significant?

    • Crucial Source of Freshwater: Glaciers act as natural water reservoirs, supplying freshwater to millions downstream. Their preservation ensures sustained water availability for drinking, agriculture, and ecosystems. Eg: The Himalayan glaciers feed rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra, supporting millions of people in India.
    • Indicator of Climate Change: Glaciers are sensitive to global warming; their rapid melting signals climate change impacts. Protecting them helps monitor and mitigate broader environmental risks. Eg: Melting Himalayan glaciers contribute to changing river flows, affecting flood and drought patterns in South Asia.
    • Supports Sustainable Development: Preserving glaciers helps maintain mountain ecosystems and supports downstream communities dependent on glacier-fed waters for their livelihoods and economic activities. Eg: Alpine glaciers support mountain agriculture and tourism, critical to local economies in regions like Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.

    Why is the Source-to-Sea (S2S) approach important for global water governance?

    • Integrated Management of Water Systems: S2S treats freshwater and marine systems as a connected continuum, ensuring that actions upstream (rivers, lakes) consider their impact downstream (coastal and marine environments). Eg: Pollution control in river basins like the Ganges directly affects the health of the Bay of Bengal ecosystem.
    • Improves Coordination Across Jurisdictions: S2S promotes cooperation among multiple stakeholders and political jurisdictions, bridging fragmented governance to manage shared water resources effectively. Eg: The Manila Declaration encourages countries to work together on ridge-to-reef management to protect water quality from land to ocean.
    • Facilitates Sustainable Solutions for Water and Marine Challenges: By addressing the entire water cycle, S2S enables holistic strategies that tackle issues like pollution, water diversion, and habitat loss, benefiting both terrestrial and marine biodiversity. Eg: Initiatives under the SIWI Action Platform connect freshwater and marine experts to develop better water management practices globally.

    What is the cryosphere? 

    The cryosphere includes all frozen water parts of Earth, such as glaciers, snow, sea ice, and permafrost. It helps regulate the climate, reflects sunlight, and stores Earth’s freshwater.

    How does the changing mountain cryosphere impact downstream water resources?

    • Altered Water Flow Patterns: Melting glaciers and shrinking snowpacks change the timing and volume of water flow downstream, leading to seasonal water shortages or floods. Eg: Reduced glacial melt in the Himalayas affects the flow of rivers like the Ganges, impacting water availability for millions.
    • Reduced Water Storage Capacity: Glaciers act as natural reservoirs, storing water during cold months and releasing it slowly. Their retreat means less buffering capacity during dry periods, causing water stress downstream. Eg: Declining glacier size in the Alps affects water supplies for European river basins in summer.
    • Increased Risk of Natural Hazards: Glacier melt can lead to the formation and sudden breach of glacial lakes, causing flash floods and damaging downstream ecosystems and communities. Eg: Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the Himalayas pose risks to villages and infrastructure along rivers like the Indus.

    What are the key challenges India faces in managing its water resources? 

    • Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation, industrial use, and domestic consumption has led to alarming depletion rates of aquifers. This poses a significant threat to long-term water availability and agricultural productivity. Eg, states like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan report over 100% utilization of groundwater resources, leading to critical water scarcity.
    • Water Pollution: Water pollution from industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and agricultural runoff has made large quantities of freshwater unusable. According to the Central Pollution Control Board, more than 70% of India’s surface water is polluted, with rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna being majorly affected.
    • Climate Change and Erratic Weather Patterns: Changing rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and frequent floods induced by climate change are altering water availability. The Indian Meteorological Department has noted a decline in monsoon rainfall, which is critical for replenishing rivers, lakes, and groundwater reserves.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?

    • Formulation and Revision of National Water Policies: The government introduced the first National Water Policy in 1987, and since then, it has been periodically updated to address emerging challenges. The latest draft policies emphasize integrated water resource management and sustainability. Eg, the 2019 draft National Water Policy focuses on water conservation, efficient use, and equitable distribution.
    • Institutional Reforms and Coordination Bodies: Committees have been set up to improve water governance by restructuring key institutions. Eg, in 2015, a committee was formed to merge the Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board into a unified National Water Commission to foster better coordination and planning.
    • Promotion of Sustainable and Integrated Approaches: The government supports approaches like Source-to-Sea (S2S) management, which integrates land, freshwater, coastal, and marine resource management. Eg, pilot projects in the Indo-Gangetic basin and Delhi waterbodies are being explored under the S2S framework to address pollution and water quality comprehensively.

    Way forward: 

    • Adopt Source-to-Sea (S2S) Approach Nationwide: Implement integrated water governance that connects glacial sources to coastal ecosystems, ensuring coordinated action across sectors and regions.
    • Strengthen Climate-Resilient Water Infrastructure: Invest in glacier monitoring, early warning systems, and sustainable groundwater management to adapt to climate-induced water variability and safeguard water security.

  • Global Energy Investment Report, 2025

    Why in the News?

    China will lead global energy investments in 2025, making up over a quarter of total spending, says the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 10th edition Global Energy Investment Report, 2025.

    Back2Basics: International Energy Agency (IEA)

    • Establishment: The IEA was formed in 1974 under the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in response to the 1973 oil crisis, with headquarters in Paris, France.
    • Membership: It has 31 member countries (e.g., US, UK, France, Japan) and 11 association countries like India, China, and Brazil.
    • India’s Role: India joined as an Association Country in 2017, gaining access to data-sharing, policy support, and technical cooperation.
    • Expanded Mission: The IEA now supports energy security, clean energy transitions, emissions tracking, and policy development.
    • Global Influence: Its major reports—World Energy Outlook, Net Zero by 2050, and Energy Technology Perspectives—guide governments and investors worldwide.

    About the Global Energy Investment Report:

    • Origin and Purpose: Officially titled World Energy Investment Report, is the IEA’s flagship annual publication.
    • Published since 2016: To assess investment flows across the global energy system.
    • Scope of Coverage: It tracks investments in fossil fuels, renewables, electricity supply, critical minerals, energy efficiency, R&D, and innovation financing.
    • Strategic Value: The report helps determine if current investments support climate goals and universal energy access.

    Global Energy Investment Report, 2025

    Key Highlights from the 2025 Report:

    • China’s Role: China will account for over 25% of global energy investment, with over $625 billion in clean energy, though it also approved 100 GW of new coal plants in 2024.
    • Global Trends: Clean energy investment will hit $2.2 trillion, over twice the amount spent on fossil fuels, yet still falls short of COP28 targets.
    • Africa’s Investment Gap: Africa’s fossil fuel investment dropped from $125 billion to $54 billion, and it still receives only 2% of global clean energy funds, mainly due to debt burdens.
    • India’s Position: India’s renewables investment rose from $13 billion (2015) to $37 billion (2025), while fossil fuel investment also increased. However, grid and storage spending declined to $25 billion.
    • Financing Barriers: India’s high cost of capital—80% above advanced economies—limits clean energy growth. The “Baku to Belem Roadmap” seeks to mobilize $1.3 trillion by 2035 for such regions.
    • Global Mismatch: While $1 trillion is spent annually on power generation, only $400 billion goes to grid infrastructure, affecting distribution capacity.
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Climate Group” is an international non-profit organisation that drives climate action by building large networks and runs them.

    2. The International Energy Agency in partnership with The Climate Group launched a global initiative “EP100”.

    3. EP100 brings together leading companies committed to driving innovation in energy efficiency and increasing competitiveness while delivering on emission reduction goals.

    4.Some Indian companies are members of EP100.

    5. The International Energy Agency is the Secretariat to the “Under2 Coalition”.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1,2,4 and 5 (b) 1,3 and 4 only* (c) 2,3 and 5 only (d) 1,2,3,4 and 5

     

  • Greater Flamingo Sanctuary at Dhanushkodi

    Why in the News?

    The Tamil Nadu government has officially notified a Greater Flamingo Sanctuary at Dhanushkodi in Ramanathapuram district.

    Greater Flamingo Sanctuary at Dhanushkodi

    What is a Bird Sanctuary?

    • India’s bird sanctuaries are established under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (WLPA).
    • Section 18 of the WLPA empowers State governments to declare wildlife or bird sanctuaries based on ecological or zoological importance.
    • The law prohibits hunting of protected birds and prescribes penalties for violations, including fines and imprisonment.

    About Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus):

    • Overview: It is the largest and most widespread flamingo species, found across Africa, southern Europe, and South and Southeast Asia, including India and Pakistan.
    • Presence in India: India hosts both Greater and Lesser Flamingos. Greater Flamingo is the state bird of Gujarat.
    • Behaviour and Diet: These birds form monogamous pairs and get their pink coloration from a diet rich in brine shrimp and algae. They are omnivores, feeding on invertebrates, small fish, algae, and decaying plant matter.
    • Habitat: They prefer saltwater lagoons, mudflats, and saline lakes, and are important indicators of wetland health.
    • Migration Pattern: Every year, 100,000–150,000 flamingos migrate from Gujarat to Mumbai, typically arriving in November and settling in the Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary.
    • Migration Triggers: Their movement depends on food availability, water levels, and colony crowding.
    • Conservation Status:
      • IUCN Red List: Least Concern (LC) (species is widespread and abundant)
      • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule II (protected but with lesser penalties than Schedule I)
      • CMS (Convention on Migratory Species): Appendix II (species need international cooperation for conservation)
      • CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species): Appendix II (trade is regulated to avoid overexploitation)

    About the Flamingo Sanctuary at Dhanushkodi:

    • Location: The sanctuary lies in the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, spanning 524.7 hectares in Rameshwaram taluk.
    • Habitat: It includes mangroves, sand dunes, mudflats, and marshes, supporting migratory birds, marine life, and sea turtles.
    • Flyway Connection: The site falls along the Central Asian Flyway, a key route for wetland migratory birds.
    • Bird Census: The 2023–24 wetland bird survey recorded over 10,700 birds, including herons, egrets, sandpipers, and both flamingo species.
    • Ecological Importance: Mangrove species like Avicennia and Rhizophora dominate the area, offering breeding grounds and coastal protection.
    [UPSC 2015] With reference to an organization known as ‘BirdLife International’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    (1) It is a Global Partnership of Conservation Organizations. (2) The concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’ originated from this organization. (3) It identifies the sites known/referred to as ‘Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas’.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • [pib] EnviStats India Report, 2025

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has released the 8th edition of EnviStats India: Environment Statistics Report.

    About EnviStats India Report:

    • Launch: It is an annual report released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), first launched in 2018.
    • Global Framework: It follows the UN’s Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES) 2013.
    • Data Compilation: The report consolidates environmental data from multiple ministries and departments of the Indian government.
    • Policymaking Support: It helps in evidence-based policymaking by identifying environmental challenges, resource needs, and trends.

    Key Highlights of EnviStats India, 2025:

    • Energy and Fisheries:
      • Thermal power generation rose from 7.92 lakh GWh (2013–14) to 13.26 lakh GWh (2023–24).
      • Renewable energy generation increased from 65,520 GWh to 2.26 lakh GWh over the same period.
      • Inland fish production jumped from 61.36 lakh tonnes to 139.07 lakh tonnes.
      • Marine fish production grew from 34.43 lakh tonnes to 44.95 lakh tonnes.
    • Climate and Weather Trends:
      • Annual mean temperature increased from 25.05°C (2001) to 25.74°C (2024).
      • Minimum temperature rose from 19.32°C to 20.24°C; maximum temperature from 30.78°C to 31.25°C.
      • Rainfall patterns showed year-to-year variability, but no clear long-term trend.
    • Biodiversity Statistics:
      • India’s faunal diversity includes 1,04,561 species, contributing to the global count of 16,73,627 species.
      • It includes 20,613 marine, 9,436 freshwater, and 22,404 soil species.
      • Mangrove and estuarine ecosystems show high biodiversity richness.
    • Expenditure Trends:
      • The Environment Sustainability sector had the highest allocation: ₹2,433.24 crore in 2021–22.
      • Spending on Conservation of Natural Resources showed a rising trend.
      • Agro-forestry received the lowest funding among the three major environmental sectors.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

    1. 36% of India’s districts are classified as “overexploited” or “critical” by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA).

    2. CGWA was’ formed under the Environment (Protection) Act.

    3. India has the largest area under groundwater irrigation in the world

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only * (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 only

     

  • State of Tigers Prey in India

    Why in the News?

    For the first time, India has conducted a detailed assessment of ungulate species (mammals with hoofs on their foot, like deer, pigs, antelopes, and bison), which are vital prey for tigers and important for forest ecosystems.

    About Status of Tiger Prey in India:

    • The report titled “Status of Ungulates in Tiger Habitats of India” was released by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), using data from the 2022 All-India Tiger Estimation.
    • This is the first national-level assessment of ungulates, the hoofed mammals like chital, sambar, gaur, wild pig, nilgai, which form the core prey base of tigers.
    • Ungulates are essential not only for tiger survival but also for maintaining healthy forest ecosystems, supporting biodiversity, and promoting soil and vegetation health.
    • The study stresses that tiger numbers alone are not enough; prey density and habitat quality must also be monitored to assess ecosystem health.
    • It establishes that 30 ungulates per sq km are needed to support 4 tigers per 100 sq km, but growth is constrained by territoriality, interspecies competition, and habitat fragmentation.

    Key Highlights:

    • Prey Decline in East-Central India: Significant decline in Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh due to habitat loss, deforestation, urbanization, mining, subsistence hunting, civil unrest, and Left Wing Extremism.
    • Thriving Regions: Healthier prey populations in the Shivalik-Gangetic Plains (Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar), Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India.
    • Species Trends:
      • Chital is the most widespread and adaptable species.
      • Sambar and gaur remain stable in central and southern forests.
      • Hog deer and barasingha show sharp decline due to wetland degradation and habitat isolation.
    • Human-Wildlife Conflict:
      • In low-prey areas like Tadoba and Ratapani, tigers prey on livestock, increasing conflict.
      • Wild pigs and nilgai damage crops, leading to retaliatory killings and local resentment.
    • Conservation Measures:
      • On-site prey breeding in predator-proof enclosures
      • Forest restoration and better habitat connectivity
      • Focused protection of sanctuaries and buffer zones
      • Reducing habitat fragmentation caused by roads, railways, and power lines

    About Tiger Conservation in India

    • Declared National Animal of India in 1972 by the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
    • Largest population in India; also found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. India harbours 75% of the world’s wild tigers.
    • Occupies habitats such as high mountains, mangrove swamps, grasslands, deciduous forests, evergreen, and shola forests.
    • Ecological Significance:
      • Flagship species: Essential for conservation efforts.
      • Umbrella species: Protecting tigers helps conserve other species.
    • Key driver of ecotourism and related industries.
    • Cultural & Spiritual Significance: Symbolizes power and strength.
    • Protection Status:
      • Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
      • IUCN Red List: Endangered.
      • CITES: Listed in Appendix I.
    • Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation initiative in India that was launched in 1973.
    • Tigers are also flagship species listed among the 7 big cats under the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA).

     

    [UPSC 2001] A pesticide which is a chlorinated hydrocarbon is sprayed on a food crop. The food chain is: Food crop – Rat -Snake – Hawk.

    In this food chain, the highest concentration of the pesticide would accumulate in which one of the following?

    Options: (a) Food crop (b) Rat (c) Snake (d) Hawk*