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Subject: Environment

  • Munroe Thuruthu: Kerala’s Sinking Island

    munroe

    A study conducted by the National Centre for Earth Science Studies (NCESS) has revealed anthropogenic interventions as the main reason for the sinking of Munroe Thuruthu Kerala’s, Kerala’s Sinking Island.

    Note: This Island has nothing to do with Thomas Monroe, the erstwhile Governor of Madras Presidency (1820-27).

    Munroe Thuruthu

    • Munroe Thuruthu is an inland island group located at the confluence of Ashtamudi Lake and the Kallada River, in Kollam district of Kerala.
    • The place is named in honour of Resident Colonel John Munro of the former Princely State of Travancore.
    • It is a group of eight small islets comprising a total area of about 13.4 km2.
    • This island is also known as “Sinking Island of Kerala”.

    How was this island inhabited?

    • In 1795 the British established their supremacy in South India and the princely state of Travancore came under their governance.
    • From 1800 onwards, a Resident was appointed by East India Company as administrative head of Travancore.
    • The first Resident was Colonel Colin Macaulay, followed by Colonel John Munro.
    • During his tenure Munro oversaw the land reclamation efforts in the delta where Kallada River joins Ashtamudi Lake and the reclaimed island was named after him as Munroe Island.

    Why in news?

    • The islanders are facing steady land subsidence, tidal flooding and lower agricultural productivity, all of which have triggered a mass exodus from the region.
    • According to the study, almost 39% of the land area of the Munroe Thuruthu has been lost with Peringalam and Cheriyakadavu islands recording a land depletion of around 12% and 47% respectively.
    • The study finds that anthropogenic activities have considerably affected the isostatic conditions and land neutrality of Munroe Thuruthu.

     

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  • Earth’s inner core rotating slower than surface: Study

    earth

    Earth’s inner core, a hot iron ball the size of Pluto, has stopped spinning faster than the planet’s surface and might now be rotating slower than it, research suggested.

    A quick recap of Earth’s Interior

    earth

    Structure of earth’s interior is fundamentally divided into three layers – crust, mantle and core.

    [A] Crust

    • It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
    • It is brittle in nature.
    • Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made of the crust.
    • The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different. Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust (about 30kms).
    • Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is often termed as SIAL(Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the region comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
    • The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
    • The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crustis termed as the Conrad Discontinuity.

     [B] Mantle

    • The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
    • The discontinuity between the crust and mantleis called as the Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
    • The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
    • Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by the mantle.
    • The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it is also termed as SIMA.
    • The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
    • The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust constitute the Lithosphere.
    • The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile, deforming region of the upper mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
    • The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which the lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).
    • The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower mantleis known as Repetti Discontinuity.
    • The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and asthenosphere, but above the core is called as Mesosphere.

    [C] Core

    • It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
    • The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s Discontinuity.
    • It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as NIFE.
    • It constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass.
    • It is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
    • It spins independently because it floats in the liquid metal outer core. One cycle of the swing is about seven decades approximately.
    • It consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
    • The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-liquid).
    • The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as Lehmann Discontinuity.
    • Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the whole interior.

    What should one understand about the interior of the earth?

    • It is not possible to know about the earth’s interior by direct observations because of the huge size and the changing nature of its interior composition.
    • It is an almost impossible distance for the humans to reach till the centre of the earth (The earth’s radius is 6,370 km).
    • The rapid increase in temperature below the earth’s surface is mainly responsible for setting a limit to direct observations inside the earth.

    Sources of Information about the interior of the earth

    Direct Sources:

    1. Rocks from mining area
    2. Volcanic eruptions

    Indirect Sources

    1. By analyzing the rate of change of temperature and pressurefrom the surface towards the interior.
    2. Meteors, as they belong to the same type of materials earth is made of.
    3. Gravitation, which is greater near poles and less at the equator.
    4. Gravity anomaly, which is the change in gravity value according to the mass of material, gives us information about the materials in the earth’s interior.
    5. Magnetic sources.
    6. Seismic Waves: the shadow zones of body waves (Primary and secondary waves) give us information about the state of materials in the interior.

    What is the new study about?

    • Exactly how the inner core rotates has been a matter of debate between scientists— and the latest research is expected to prove controversial.
    • A new research has analyzed seismic waves from repeating earthquakes over the last six decades.
    • It shows that- the inner core started rotating slightly faster than the rest of the planet in the early 1970s, the study said.
    • But it had been slowing down before coming in sync with Earth’s rotation around 2009.

    What made the core spin slower?

    • So far there is little to indicate that what the inner core does has many effects on surface dwellers.
    • The researchers said this rotation timeline roughly lines up with changes in what is called the “length of day”— small variations in the exact time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis.
    • But the researchers said they believed there were physical links between all of Earth’s layers, from the inner core to the surface.

     

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  • Species in news: Olive Ridley Turtles

    olive

    Hundreds of vulnerable Olive Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) have washed ashore along the coastline between Kakinada and Antarvedi in the Godavari region during the ongoing annual breeding season on the east coast.

    Why in news?

    • The wastewater from the aqua ponds is also being released into the sea.
    • This is suspected to be one of the reasons for the mortality of turtles

    Olive Ridley Turtles

    • The Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), also known as the Pacific ridley sea turtle, is a medium-sized species of sea turtle found in warm and tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
    • In the Indian Ocean, the majority of olive ridleys nest in two or three large groups at Rushikulya rookery near Gahirmatha in Odisha.
    • The coast of Odisha in India is the largest mass nesting site for the olive ridley, followed by the coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica.
    • The species is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List, Appendix 1 in CITES, and Schedule 1 in Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

    Special feature: Mass nesting

    • They are best known for their behavior of synchronized nesting in mass numbers, termed Arribadas.
    • Interestingly, females return to the very same beach from where they first hatched, to lay their eggs.
    • They lay their eggs in conical nests about one and a half feet deep which they laboriously dig with their hind flippers.
    • They hatch in 45 to 60 days, depending on the temperature of the sand and atmosphere during the incubation period.

     

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  • What is Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), and how it impacts the climate?

    lng

    The EU is weaning itself off piped Russian gas by rapidly expanding imports of liquefied natural gas (LNG) from US.

    What is Liquefied Natural Gas or LNG?

    • LNG is natural gas reduced to a liquid state (liquefaction) through intense cooling to around -161 degrees Celsius (-259 Fahrenheit).
    • It is constituted almost wholly of methane — a potent greenhouse gas and can be transported around the world by ship.
    • This liquid gas is 600 times smaller than the original volume and is half the weight of water.
    • After arriving at its destination, the cargo is regasified in a floating terminal and redistributed through pipelines.

    Economic feasibility of LNG

    • High cost of liquefaction: despite LNG’s export potential, the high cost of liquefaction and producing LNG has limited its market.
    • Losses: Between 10-25% of the energy of the gas is being lost during the liquefaction process.
    • Costly transport: The cooling, liquefying and transport processes, as well as the post-transport regasification procedures, also require a lot of energy.

    What’s the climate impact of LNG?

    • Emission: With LNG creating almost 10 times more emissions than piped gas by one estimate, its rapid expansion will likely compromise climate targets.
    • Risks of methane leakages: Methane loss across the supply chain risks also contributes to LNG’s high emissions.
    • Huge carbon equivalence: Meanwhile, LNG emits 14 times as much carbon as solar power when producing the equivalent amount of energy, and 50 times as much carbon as wind power.

     

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  • Intra-national COP: An innovative approach of cooperation

    national

    Context

    • India revised its target to reduce the carbon intensity of its GDP to 45 percent by 2030, more ambitious than the earlier target of 34 percent. These National carbon emission targets were globally appreciated and have further strengthened its leadership position in climate action.

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    Spirit of cooperative federalism is needed to achieve this target

    • In order to effectively address climate change, India needs to involve all of its states and Union Territories. During recent climate summits, the states and UTs have not been active participants.
    • A new approach to cooperation between states and UTs on climate action is needed, similar to the cooperation used in the implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST). This will lead to better results in public sector actions to tackle climate change.

    Role of states

    • Power of States and UTs: Provisions in the Constitution of India, legislations of the Parliament, executive orders, and judicial decisions enable states/UTs to have a substantial influence on matters pertaining to land, electricity, mobility, labour, pollution control, skill building, law and order, financial incentives for commercial activities, etc.
    • Role of States and UTs in Policy Implementation: States/UTs can become prime movers in the last mile through interventions in policy, regulation, and project implementation.
    • Potential of India’s Cooperative Federalism: During the ongoing winter session of Parliament, the Prime Minister of India also emphasised the potential of India’s cooperative federalism in becoming ‘a torch bearer of the world’ in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) while addressing its Rajya Sabha.

    How India’s model of ‘Intranational COP’ will work?

    • Utilizing GST council model for climate action: Climate action is a unifying theme, and creating a forum similar to the Goods and Services Taxes (GST) council, which created successful engagement models during the pan-India roll-out of GST, can be helpful.
    • Facilitating cross-party dialogue: This intra-country group, Intranational COP, can offer opportunities for sharing a stage across parties in a neutral setting where outcome-oriented conversations can take place.
    • Promoting cooperative and competitive federalism for Net Zero: It can kindle the friendly spirit of cooperative and competitive federalism with each state/UT committing to bolder actions towards net zero.
    • Measuring stakeholder performance through consensus building: It can potentially introduce new evaluation parameters for measuring the performance of stakeholders based on their ability to build consensus across boundaries while keeping aside their myopic and constricted vote-bank-centered politics.
    • Learning and Leveraging Best Practices: Climate change is a new and dynamic topic for all stakeholders. It is an equaliser where no state/UT has any inherent advantageous positions. States/UTs can learn best practices from each other to implement, achieve, and measure the outcomes of their actions.

    Electricity distribution: A case of cooperation

    • Today, though a project is conceived, financed, and implemented by central agencies, site-specific mobilisation of resources requires the active cooperation of the states/UTs.
    • An important case in point can be electricity distribution, where states can exponentially augment India’s clean energy ambitions.
    • Furthermore, they can directly support municipal corporations/village panchayats in innovating customised approaches for faster and inclusive adoption of national climate goals in line with the socioeconomic and cultural sensitivities of the region.

    ‘Intranational COP’ for common but differentiated responsibilities

    • Forum for addressing Climate Change within India: It is well-established that some parts of India are economically more developed as compared to others. This translates to the fact that the relatively more prosperous regions contribute more to India’s carbon emissions. Such states are better positioned to initially invest in expensive low-carbon technologies and disseminate them to achieve economies of scale.
    • Addressing Regional Imbalances in Carbon Emissions: IndiaCOP can can unleash creative mechanisms to offset regional imbalances while respecting local cultural sensitivities.
    • Platform for States/UTs to Forge Mutual Cooperation Agreements: It can provide a platform for states/UTs to forge MOUs that complement each other’s strengths while filling up the gaps in technical/financial/people resources. For e.g., small hilly states have good hydroelectric power potential, but they may lack financial wherewithal; states like Rajasthan have good solar energy potential but currently lack sufficient trained manpower, etc.

    Way ahead

    • Intranational COP can be a dedicated flagship platform to thrash out a national consensus on India’s climate goals and the means to achieve them. For example, the Finance Commission can play a role in allocating capital based on the climate actions and needs of states.
    • The mechanisms of climate funding and allocation, led by the Finance Commission, can be debated and agreed upon on this platform. Such a consensus will enjoy double legitimacy as it is arrived at collectively by the union and state/UT governments.

    Conclusion

    • The success of India’s model of “Intra-national COP” can become a template for federal nations across the world to engage with provincial/local governments with diverse socio-political and economic challenges. It can score a big win in promoting India’s soft power, especially as it takes on the presidency of the G20.

    Mains question

    Q. During recent climate summits, the states and UTs have not been active participants. In this backdrop how India’s model of Intra-national COP will be helpful?

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  • Herpetofauna and the Impact of crop pesticides

    Herpetofauna

    Context

    • The demand for land for food production always results in an uncomfortable trade-off between agricultural expansion and species conservation. One can see an example of this trade-off in paddy fields, whose unique combination of wet and drylands provide ideal habitats for amphibians and reptiles. However, Amphibians and reptiles are bearing the brunt of crop intensification.

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    Ecological services provided by herpetofauna

    • Herpetofauna: Amphibians and reptiles are cold-blooded animals, together referred to as herpetofauna, provide immense ecological services.
    • As biological control agents: Frogs and toads, for instance, act as biological control agents by feeding on crop pests. Several salamanders and tadpoles of frogs help in controlling mosquito and mosquito-borne diseases by feeding on the larvae.
    • Efficient pollinators and improves soil quality: They also help improve soil quality and aeration, aid in dispersal of seeds and in pollination. There are almost 40 species of lizards including skinks and geckos that are efficient pollinators.

    Threats faced by herpetofauna

    • Increased use of pesticides and fertilizers: The diversity and abundance of these herpetofauna are rapidly declining with increased use of pesticides, fertilisers, land conversion, changes in cropping systems and the reduced proportion of natural vegetation.
    • Threatened by agriculture and management practices: According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 1,532 species of Anurans (frogs) and 825 species of reptiles in the world are critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable due to agriculture and its management practices.
    • Particularly threatened in India: They appear to be particularly threatened in India which has a high amphibian diversity most of them are endemic to the region and, as per the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, had the largest cropland area over the last decade, followed by the US and China.
    • Being cold-blooded, amphibians and reptiles have unique physiological demands: They are extremely sensitive to microclimates (with a narrow range of soil humidity, moisture, light flux, acidity, air and soil temperature) and microhabitats (they have small habitats like grass cover and low dispersal range; maximum lifetime dispersal for frogs and toads is 12 km). This makes them particularly susceptible to agricultural intensification. However, the researchers find a distinct difference in the way it affects amphibians and reptiles.

    Survey to understand the impact of crop intensification

    • To understand the impact of crop intensification on the populations and diversity of herpetofauna, researchers from the University of Calcutta conducted a year-long survey of farm lands in Odisha’s Baleswar district.
    • Almost 90 per cent of the 250,550 hectares of cultivable land in the district is under paddy.

    Did you know?

    • Baleswar district, of Odisha is known as “Rice bowl of the state”.

    Comment if any place in your state is recognized as such

    Findings of the Survey

    • Low diversity in high cropping intensity: The abundance of amphibians was almost half and their diversity was low in areas with high cropping intensity, pesticide application and low natural vegetation when compared with areas where less-intensive farming is practised.
    • Amphibians are more exposed to pesticides: The difference is because amphibians are more exposed to pesticide contamination than reptiles as their skin is highly permeable and performs both respiration and water uptake.
    • Species are going through an extinction debt: The researchers suggest the species are rather going through an extinction debt wherein there is a lag between the impact of agricultural intensification on them and their response to it.
    • Reptiles face a higher threat from conflicts with humans: The real impact of the current intensification of agriculture on reptiles would be felt much later. When compared with amphibians, reptiles like snakes face a higher threat from conflicts with humans. Encroachment of forest areas and misconceptions and myths result in the indiscriminate killing of snakes irrespective of them being venomous or harmless.
    • Intraguild predation: The researchers also find that in areas where the diversity of the frog population is lesser, the numbers of beneficial arthropods have reduced due to intraguild predation. If this reduction in populations of both predators continues, it will disrupt the natural system of suppressing crop pest abundance.

    What is mean by intraguild predation?

    • A phenomenon where more than one species feed on the same prey and therefore competitors feed on each other.
    • For example, when one predator, like a lion, hunts and kills another predator, like a hyena, for food.
    • It’s when animals that are both hunters, compete against each other for the same prey.
    • It is just like how two kids might fight over a candy bar.

    Way ahead

    • The study shows unless a threshold abundance of frogs is maintained, their impacts will be far from beneficial to agriculture.
    • Semi-natural and natural vegetation and buffer strips such as ditches, provide chances to increase numbers of alternate prey, intermediate hosts of target pests and increase the availability of nutritional plant resources.
    • Semi-natural patches are beneficial for arthropod communities and can raise their numbers to enhance crop pest regulation.

    Conclusion

    • To optimize the benefits from existing farmland, the researchers recommend that biodiversity research be holistic so more organisms get targeted ecological services.

    Mains question

    Q. What are herpetofauna? Highlight the Ecological services provided by herpetofauna and discuss the threats faced by herpetofauna.

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  • EIA must before allowing urban development projects: SC

    The Supreme Court has urged legislators and policy experts to ensure that Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) studies are done before giving the green signal for urban development projects in India’s cities.

    What is the news?

    • The Supreme Court how haphazard urban development has ruined the ‘Garden City’ of Bengaluru as witnessed during a major spell of rain in September 2022.
    • The court said that the city struggled for drinking water while it lay submerged after the downpour.

    Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) defines it as,

    a formal process to predict the environmental consequences of human development activities and to plan appropriate measures to eliminate or reduce adverse effects and to augment positive effects.

    • Thus, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an integral part of Environmental Management. It investigates likely impacts, both positive and negative, of development projects on the surrounding environment.
    • Simply put, EIA is a detailed study regarding the impacts of any project on the environment. It serves as a decision-making tool which helps policy makers approve, reject or find an alternative to a project

    EIA

    In India, Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) is notified under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.

    Evolution of EIA 

    • The origin of EIA lies in the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act(NEPA) in the year 1969 in the USA. It not only introduced the concept of environmental impact assessment but also made it necessary for federal agencies to evaluate impact of environmental decisions.
    • Environment Impact Assessment gained popularity after the introduction of the concept of sustainable developmentvia World Commission on Environment 1987 & United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summit) in 1992. It led to adoption of EIA in many countries as well. Principle 17 of the Rio Summit states that,
    • Environmental impact assessment (EIA), as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority. [Given just for your info. No need to remember this type of complex language.Instead, you can mention that EIA is mentioned explicitly under Principle 17 of the Rio declaration of 1992].
    • In 1976-77, EIA was started in India, when the Department of Science and Technology was asked by Planning Commission to examine the river-valley projects from the environmental angle.
    • Eventually n 1994, EIA was made mandatory in India under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. Until then, environmental clearance from the Central Government was an administrative decision and had no legislative backing.
    • Since then, EIA has been amended several times. The most significant amendment was made in 2006

    EIA Process

    Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) process can vary depending on a country’s policy and requirement. However, EIA process in most countries, including India, have the following steps:

    1. Screening
    2. Scoping
    3. Collection of baseline data
    4. Impact Prediction
    5. Assessment of alternatives, mitigation measures & Environmental, Impact Assessment Report
    6. Public Hearing
    7. Decision Making
    8. Monitoring the clearance conditions

    Screening: This is the first step in the EIA process. At this stage it is decided whether the proposed project needs an EIA and if so to what detail. Screening criteria are based upon:

    • Scales of investment
    • Type of development
    • Location of development

    Scoping: It is the most significant step in the entire EIA process as key environmental issues involved are identified at this stage.

    • Scoping has to be done by consultants in consultation with the project proponent and guidance, if needed, from Impact Assessment Agency
    • The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published sector-wise guidelines which outline the significant issues which have to be addressed while conducting the EIA studies.
    • At the end of scoping, detailed terms of reference (TOR) are prepared of EIA.
    • TOR is a written document containing written requirements governing EIA implementation, consultations to be held, data to be gathered, methodology to be used etc

    Involved in Environmental Impact Assessment

    Collection of baseline data: It describes the existing environmental status of the identified study area. The site-specific primary data is monitored and supplemented with secondary data

    Impact prediction: Under this, possible effects on the physical, biological, social and economic conditions are taken into consideration and measures are suggested to prevent, reduce or compensate for the impacts.

    For example:

    • Impact of biological diversity in an area ex. EIA done by Gadgil panel on the western ghats regions.
    • Impact on habitat because of deforestation and pollution- Impact on Himalayan ecosystem when hydropower projects are opened.
    • Impact on endangered animals and migratory paths. For ex Great India hornbill’s trail in India is evaluated so as to see that such developmental project is not affecting its pathway.
    • The predictions of impact can never be absolute and certain and thus there is a need to comprehensively consider all factors and take all possible precautions for reducing the degree of uncertainty.

    Assessment of alternatives, mitigation measures & Environmental Impact Assessment Report: Identification of alternatives and their comparison: For every project, possible alternatives are to be identified and environmental impacts and benefits to be compared.

    • Alternatives should then be ranked for selection of the best environmental option for optimum economic benefits to the community at large.
    • Environment Management Plan (EMP): Once alternatives have been reviewed, an impact mitigation plan is drawn up for the selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental improvements. EMP is a crucial input to monitoring the clearance conditions and therefore details of monitoring should be included in it.
    • EMP is a site-specific plan developed to ensure that the project is implemented in an environmentally sustainable manner where all contractors and subcontractors, including consultants understand the potential environmental risks arising from the project and take appropriate actions to properly manage that risk.
    • An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report prepared at this stage should provide clear information to the decision maker on the different environmental scenarios without the project, with the project and with project alternatives.

    Public Hearing: Public must be informed and consulted on a proposed development after the completion of EIA report

    • Gram Sabha must be consulted before the project starts. Gram Sabha means the electorate (people eligible to vote) of the region

    Decision-making: It involves consultations between the project proponent (assisted by a consultant) and the impact assessment authority (assisted by an expert group if necessary). Final decision regarding the project is taken, keeping in mind EIA and EMP (Environment Management Plan).

    Monitoring: Monitoring should be done during both construction and operation phases of a project. This is not only to ensure that the commitments made are complied with but also to observe whether the predictions made in the EIA reports were correct or not.

    • Where the impacts exceed the predicted levels, corrective action should be taken.
    • Monitoring enables the regulatory agency to review the validity of predictions and the conditions of implementation of the Environmental Management Plan (EMP).

    Objective of EIA

    • To bring out a national policy to encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and environment.
    • To promote efforts to prevent or eliminate damage to the environment.
    • To increase understanding of ecological systems and natural resources important to the nation

    Why we need Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)? / Significance of EIA / Benefits of EIA

    • Facilitates sustainable development: In present times anthropogenic activities like rapid industrialization, mass production and clearing of forests have created immense pressure on the natural environment. Tools like EIA help in balancing the need for economic growth with equally important concept of sustainability.
    • Mitigating negative impacts & informed decision-making– Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) helps in minimizing the negative impact of various development projects. It enables monitoring programmes to be established to assess future impacts and provide data on which managers can take informed decisions to avoid environmental damage.
    • Aids cost-effectiveness– EIA helps in selection and design of projects, programmes or plans with long term viability and therefore improves cost effectiveness.
    • Advance assessments also helps avoid future losses that may be incurred if the project is found environmentally unacceptable at a later stage. Cost of adaptation when a project is already running is usually more.

    Thus, EIA as a tool aims to minimize the environmental impacts emanating out of any economic activity that have the potential to cause environmental degradation.

    Environmental Components

    Rapid EIA vs Comprehensive EIA

    The difference is in the time scale of the data supplied. But both types require complete coverage of all EIA procedures

    • Rapid EIA: Under Rapid EIA data supplied is of only one season(other than monsoon) to reduce the time required. Rapid EIA is for speedier appraisal process.
    • Comprehensive EIA: It collects data from all four seasons.Rapid EIA is acceptable if it does not compromise upon the quality of decision making. The review of Rapid EIA submissions will show whether a comprehensive EIA is warranted or not. Therefore, submission of comprehensive EIA in the first stance would generally be more efficient approach. Comprehensive EIA includes appraisal of those projects whose analysis in not to be done soon, here time is not the essential factor but the quality of the appraisal is.

    EIA notifications

    Central govt has the power to issue EIA notifications under Section 3 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, wherein it can impose restrictions on setting up new projects or expansion or modernisation of existing projects. The section stipulates that such measures must benefit the environment.

    Under the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, first EIA notification was issued in 1994. Later, it was replaced by a modified draft in 2006

    Salient Features of EIA rules Amendment done in 2006 

    • Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 decentralized the environmental clearance projects by categorizing the developmental projects in two categories i.e., Category Aand Category B

    Salient features of EIA

    After 2006 Amendment, EIA comprises of four cycles:

    • Screening
    • Scoping
    • Public Hearing
    • Appraisal
    • State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) are constituted to provide clearance to category B projects.
    • Category A Projects require mandatory environmental clearance. Screening process is not required.
    • Category B projects undergo screening process. They are classified in two types:
    • Category B1 Projects: Mandatorily require EIA
    • Category B2 Projects: Do not require EIA

    Thus,

    • Category Aprojects and category B1 projects undergo the complete EIA process
    • Category B2projects are excluded from complete EIA process

    This 2006 EIA notification has undergone several amendments over last 14 years. A new draft EIA Notification 2020 has been floated by the govt. It is meant to incorporate the amendments and court orders issued since 2006.

    Major Provisions of draft EIA notification 2020

    • Public Consultation 
    • Period of public consultation hearings is proposed to be reduced to a maximum of 40 days.
    • Time provided for the public to submit their responses is proposed to be reduced from present 30 to 20 days.
    • Rationale by the govt: the shorter window was “in tune with the times”, given the growth of internet and mobile telephony.
    • Concern: Several environmental activists and organisations have instead argued that even the 30-day timeframe was inadequate as information failed to reach the stakeholders residing in remote and inaccessible terrains
    • More discretionary powers to government
    • Central government can declare “economically sensitive areas” without public hearing or environmental clearance
    • Government also gets to decide which projects are to be considered “strategic”.
    • Post-facto clearance: Legalisation of projects that have commenced operations without obtaining necessary clearances; subject to a payment of penalty.

    Supreme court’s view on post–facto clearance –

    • In a judgment in early 2020, in the case of Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd vs Rohit Prajapati,the Supreme Court by also referring to Common Cause vs. Union of India judgment, struck down and condemned ex-post facto environmental clearance (a concept which the new draft EIA proposes to regularise).
    • In 2013, the Hon’ble Supreme Court in the case of Association for Environmental Protection vs State of Kerala, held that commencement of projects without obtaining prior EC (environmental clearance) is a violation of the fundamental right to lifeguaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution

     

    • Post-clearance compliance: Post-clearance compliance implies that once a project gets approved by the concerned authority, the proponent projects are required to adhere to certain rules laid down in the EIA report in order to ensure that no further environmental damages take place.
    • The new draft EIA, contrary to the 2006 notification — which required submission of the compliance report every six months, proposes annual reports. 
    • Concern: Environmental experts are of the view that allowing a longer period for filling the compliance report will give an opportunity to project proponents to hide disastrous consequences, which could go unnoticed

     

    • Exemption clause: It identifies a long list of projects like roads and pipelines in border areas which have been exempted from public consultation and prior clearance.
    • Concern: Analysts note that by this provision, the government shall have discretion to designate any project as being of strategic importance. Activists in states with crucial resources like uranium, as in Meghalaya, have also opposed this provision

     

    • Baseline Data: Does away with the need to carry out studies covering all seasons in a year

    In the 2019 ‘Ease of Doing Business’ report by the World Bank, India rose steadily from 142nd ranking in 2014 to 63rd ranking in 2019. India, however, has steadily declined on Environment Performance Index, from 141st rank in 2016 to 168th rank out of 180 countries in 2020.

    The government has assured that it will strive to strike a balance between the environmental and developmental concerns. As and when the EIA is finalised, it is expected to incorporate the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in a balanced manner.

    Shortcomings of the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) process

    Applicability: There are several projects with environmental impacts that are exempted from the notifications. Ex. Low scale sand mining

    Inadequate capacity of EIA approval authorities: Lack of technical and environmental experts, anthropologists and social scientists among the members and involvement of crony capitalism and nexus between corporates and politicians leads to faulty decision making, where projects which severe harm the environment may also get approved.

    Deficiencies in screening, scoping and impact analysis: There are no independent bodies and no standardized formats for project evaluation.

    • Absence of standardized baseline data brings arbitrariness in impact prediction.
    • It is allegedly done by those people which are on the payroll of company which creates a conflict of interest. They intentionally exclude negative impact on forests/ environment and impact on tribes during the scoping process

    Poor quality EIA reports: EIA is presently used as a project justification tool rather than as a project planning tool to contribute to achieving sustainable development. Involvement of planning for future activities should also be focused upon along with the justification of the project itself.

    • EIA is not just a tool to describe YES or NO regarding a project but also about how the harm, if any, to the environment can be minimized, so as to be pollution-neutral and environmentally sustainable.

    Initiated at a later stage: Another flaw in the EIA process in India is that it is undertaken at a much later stage, especially after the project has been designed, approved and almost ready for construction. Thus, by the time EIA starts huge costs are incurred and the project becomes too big to fall.

    Inadequate public participation: In many countries like Nepal, Argentina and Australia, public involvement is mandatory at various stages of the EIA process (i.e., screening, scoping, report preparation and decision making), but in India public consultation occurs only once during the entire process. According to the EIA notification 2006, this public consultation is performed in two ways.

    • First, written comments are sought on draft EIA report from stakeholders
    • Second, public hearing is conducted at or near the proposed project site.

    Drawbacks of this system:

    • Public consultation is done after the preparation of draft EIA reportand when it is ready for final submission to the expert committee.
    • Also, the notification issued for public hearing are not published in local vernacular languagesthus keeping it out of the scope of understanding of locals.

    Weak monitoring: Monitoring is not done through an independent agency. Environment management plans of strategic industries like nuclear energy are not put into the public domain.

    How can we strengthen the EIA process?

    1.Independent Agency: Entire EIA process right from screening to monitoring should be done by independent agencies and establishing a National Accreditation Body for agencies carrying out EIA.

    • Creation of centralized baseline data bank

    2.Applying Precautionary Principle: This principle states that if there is a threat of serious damage (in this case, to the environment) from a particular action then a lack of scientific certainty should not be used to avoid taking steps to prevent that damage. Hence, the list of concerns raised by the public should be studied in detail to arrive at any conclusion. Ex. GM crops.

    • Clearances given to project that is not clearly justified becomes questionable as happened in Sethusamudram Project

    3.Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA): It helps in choosing a project and not just evaluate it. It offers alternatives and guides project financing. The directives of SEA are reflected in the National Environment Policy 2006. Similarly, Nepal also carries out SEA’s.

    • A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a systematic process for evaluating the environmental implications of a proposed policy, planor programme

    4.Robust and Inclusive public hearing: A key role for local people through Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) at every stage. Special focus on forests and tribal. The traditional knowledge of locals needs to be incorporated.

    5.Transparency: Greater transparency in the clearance process and dissemination of all documents for public scrutiny.

    6.Capacity Building: NGO’s, civil society groups and local communities need to build their capacities to use the EIA notification towards better decision-making on projects that can impact their local environments and livelihoods. Capacities can be built to proactively and effectively use the notification rather than respond in a manner that is seen as negative or unproductive.

    Way forward

    In a world that is challenged by environmental degradation and social conflicts, scholars have upheld public and local participation to be a “threshold condition” for development. EIA provides this necessary element in the economic development process. Therefore, EIA-based approvals for most projects should mandatorily and necessarily involve the process of conducting public hearings so that the views and opinions of people who are likely to be affected can be taken on board before a decision to approve the project is made so as to reduce future scope of resentment.

     

  • Disasters at Himalayan Region (Uttarakhand)

    Himalay

    Context

    • Disasters have become commonplace in the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand, the most recent one being the sinking of Joshimath. Although climate change has triggered these events, the most important underlying factors are poor planning and a lack of vision.

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    Recent disasters on Himalaya

    • Kedarnath floods: Nature has given enough warnings of the dangers in the Himalayas. The 2013 Kedarnath floods took more than 5,000 lives, according to official records.
    • Nepal earthquake: The 2015 Gurkha Earthquake in Nepal killed as many as 8000 individuals.
    • Floods in Pakistan: The recent floods in Pakistan left millions of people homeless and devastated.
    • Sinking of Joshimath: The ‘Joshimath sinking’ phenomenon has received national and global attention. However, other cities and towns across Uttarakhand are also on the brink of collapse. Joshimath is the first one to succumb to human pressures, thankfully without causing any damage to human lives.

    Reasons for disasters at Himalaya (Uttarakhand)

    • Construction in Prohibited areas: The geological fragility of Uttarakhand is part of scientific and popular knowledge. Government policies and bylaws prohibit people from constructing houses on vulnerable slopes.
    • Mindless decision making: With increasing access to internet facilities, almost everyone can find information. Yet one is compelled to ask about the role technological advancement and information abundance have played in environmental decision-making as mindless construction over vulnerable slopes continues uninhibited.
    • Ignorance by bureaucrats: The technicalities of science and academic jargon are complex for bureaucrats to understand and laypersons and bureaucratic mindsets only engage with the research community for obligatory and cosmetic purposes.

    Infrastructure of mountainous area and plain area

    • Normal construction methods for fragile ecology: We have continued to borrow practices from elsewhere for implementation on the delicate eco-geological systems of the Himalayas.
    • Gurugramisation of Uttarakhand: Gurugram’s infrastructure development took a toll on Gurugram itself. For the Himalayas, Gurugram-style development is enormously devastating. The “Gurugramisation” of Uttarakhand needs to stop.
    • Disregards to laws and regulations: The divide between science–policy, and people, has promoted disconnected decision-making and encouraged individuals to casually flout bylaws and regulatory policies. A common Uttarakhandi is forced to live a life full of uncertainty and fear.

    Case study of Nainital

    • Vulnerable to landslides: Nainital, one of the most vulnerable cities in the entire Himalayan region. The Nainital lake is situated over an active Faultline and surrounded by slopes vulnerable to landslides.
    • Earthquake prone area: It falls under a high earthquake-prone zone (Zone IV). Since its settlement in 1841 small and big landslides continue to threaten the city. The most devastating of them was the 1880 landslide that took 151 human lives.
    • Construction on vulnerable slopes: Despite having robust scientific evidence, building bylaws, and an aware citizenry, the brutal assaults on the biophysical environment of the city are ongoing. The slope that collapsed in 1880 (less than a fraction of a second earlier on a geological time scale) is now inhabited by more than 15,000 individuals.
    • Ground water exploitation: In 2017, the Nainital lake level plummeted 18 feet due to the excessive withdrawal of water from the lake bed to meet local and unprecedented tourism needs. Such a decline was never experienced in the past.
    • Mindless tourism activities: The biggest threat to Nainital is the crumbling “Balianala”. To make matters worse, construction work over the most important recharge area of the Nainital lake “Sukhatal” is underway. The intention is to enhance tourism-related activity. But the question is, does a city that receives more than 10,000 tourists and 2,000 vehicles on a daily basis in the summer months and weekends need more tourism?

    Himalay

    Conclusion

    • The carrying capacity of the cities in Himalayas has been exhausted. The natural infrastructure is fatigued and dangers of a possible collapse are visible to the human eye. Government must the amend and implement the construction laws and regulations for sustainability of Himalayas.

    Mains Question

    Q. What are the reasons for recent sinking in Joshi math? Illustrate the vulnerability of Himalayas using the case study.

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  • Uranium Contamination in Groundwater

    Groundwater

    Context

    • The most recent report on the state of groundwater released by the Central Groundwater Board. It revealed that the twelve Indian states have uranium levels beyond permissible limits in their groundwater. Uranium concentrations in the country’s shallow groundwater range from 0-532 parts per billion (ppb), according to the document titled Groundwater yearbook 2021-2022 released in January, 2023.

    What is a Safe level of uranium in groundwater?

    • The safe levels for uranium in groundwater in India are 30 ppb as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
    • The safe level of 30 µg/L is established to minimize the risk of these health effects. However, it should be noted that long-term exposure to even low levels of uranium can also cause health problems.

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    Findings of the report

    • No presence in Kerala: Uranium concentration is found to be within safe limits in 13 states and none of the samples collected from Kerala had its presence.
    • Punjab worse affected: Punjab is the worst-affected state in terms of the percentage of wells found to have uranium concentration of more than 30 ppb, the safe level. Nearly 29 per cent, or about three in every 10 wells tested in Punjab, is contaminated with uranium. Uranium presence in Punjab’s groundwater is found to be 17.7 times more than the safe limit prescribed by WHO. The concentration of the element was also highest in the state, with 532 ppb.
    • Haryana stands second: Haryana is the second state in terms of uranium prevalence in groundwater. The state also recorded the second-highest concentration of uranium in the country, with 518 ppb or 17.3 times the WHO-prescribed safe limit.
    • Uttar Pradesh third largest in terms of uranium concentration: The state was the third-highest in terms of uranium concentration, with 532 ppb or 7.9 times more than the safe limit. For example, 9.2 per cent of the samples from Uttar Pradesh had a high concentration of uranium.
    • Localised pockets of other states: Uranium concentration was found to be higher than the threshold level in localised pockets of seven other states Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Odisha, Telangana and Bihar.

    Groundwater

    Uranium: A toxic element

    • Uranium is a nephrotoxic element, which means people dependent on groundwater containing the element are at a higher risk of impaired renal function and kidney disease.
    • Exposure to uranium may also lead to other adverse health impacts, including bone toxicity and problems such as neurological effects, reproductive and developmental effects, and immune system effects.
    • Ingestion of large amounts of uranium can lead to immediate health effects such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea. Inhalation of uranium dust or fumes can cause lung irritation and damage, including lung cancer.

    Groundwater

    Causes of contamination

    • Geogenic plus anthropogenic: Geogenic processes are responsible for uranium contamination, but the overexploitation of groundwater can also be a reason for it.
    • High concentration largely due to natural uranium content: High levels of uranium are largely due to natural uranium content in aquifer rocks, oxidation state and groundwater chemistry, noted researchers from Duke University.
    • High bicarbonate levels: Extreme bicarbonate levels were also found at the sites with high uranium levels. Bicarbonates help to bring the uranium out of the source rocks and is a reason for the high occurrence of the element, said Rachel Coyte, the lead author of the study.
    • Human-made causes too be behind this: Groundwater-table decline, nitrate pollution and over-exploitation of groundwater from irrigation further exacerbate uranium mobilisation, said the study.
    • Overexploitation of groundwater: Overexploitation of groundwater resources is likely to be one of the reasons for uranium and other geogenic contaminants, including arsenic and fluoride, according to the BARC study published in 2021.

    Groundwater

    Reverse osmosis could be a probable solution

    • Reverse osmosis (RO) is a way to purify water.
    • It uses a special membrane to filter out impurities, such as minerals and other dissolved contaminants, including toxic elements such as uranium.
    • The water is forced through the membrane by applying pressure, leaving behind the impurities and creating clean, purified water on the other side.
    • The impurities are removed by the membrane and the clean water is collected.

    Did you know?

    • BARC has conducted studies on the removal of uranium from drinking water using a hybrid membrane technique.
    • Field studies are also being carried out in a few districts of Punjab based on RO technique at a village level to provide potable water, stated the BARC researchers.

    Conclusion

    • Uranium contamination has been attributed to geogenic processes coupled with the overexploitation of groundwater in the country. This assessment of uranium contamination in groundwater across India highlights the need for an urgent response. Reverse osmosis (RO) is one of the latest membrane-based technologies used in water purification systems to remove uranium could be a solution.

    Mains question

    Q. Almost half of India’s states have uranium levels in their groundwater above permissible limits. Highlight the causes and effects of uranium contamination in groundwater.

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  • Marine Plastic Waste Problem of India

    Plastic

    Context

    • India generates 55 million tonnes of municipal waste, of which only 37 per cent is treated, according to the Central Pollution Control Board. Only 60 per cent of the total collected plastic waste is recycled, while the fate of the remaining 40 per cent is not accounted.

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    Geographical location and trade of India

    • Huge coastline: India has a coastline spanning 7,517 kilometres. It is spread across eight states and borders a 2.02 million square kilometre of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
    • Large coastal population: India’s eight coastal states house a population of 420 million. Of this, about 330 million live on or within 150 km of a coast. Three in four metro cities of the country are located on the coast. Coastal districts are home to nearly 14.2 per cent of the country’s total population.
    • High trade waters and oceans: Around 95 per cent of India’s trade by volume and 68 per cent by value is executed through waterways.

    Reasons for marine Plastic pollution

    • Rapid urbanization and changing lifestyle: Growing population, rapid urbanisation, shifting consumption pattern and changing lifestyles have resulted in the mismanagement of plastic waste, leading to the accumulation of municipal solid waste.
    • Most plastic through land-based source: Most of these items, especially plastic items, contribute significantly to the growing burden of marine debris. Land-based sources account for most of the plastic in the water.
    • Unfiltered waste carried by rivers: Unaccounted waste from urban agglomerations is carried by river systems to oceans for final dumping.
    • High percentage of dumping of garbage: The country’s coastline contributes to its ecological richness, biodiversity and economy. Every year, thousands of tonnes of garbage, composed of plastics, glass, metals, sanitary products, clothes, etc., are dumped into it. However, plastics contribute a major portion of about 60 per cent of the total marine debris that reaches the oceans.

    Initiatives by Government

    • Beach clean-up initiatives: The Ministry of Earth Sciences, through its attached office National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), has undertaken beach clean-up initiatives, awareness programmes and beach litter quantification studies at regular intervals.
    • Scientific study on marine pollution: Many studies have been conducted across coastal states and U Territories Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. NCCR has initiated monitoring of the temporal and spatial distribution of marine litter along the Indian coasts and adjacent seas in 2018, 2019 and 2021.
    • Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar campaign: An average of 0.98 metric tonnes of trash per km stretch of coastline, averaging a weight concentration of 0.012 kilograms per metre square, accumulated along the Indian coastline, noted Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar campaign, 2022.
    • Attempt by TREE foundation: Attempts made by some organisations in rescuing marine species from the debris are worth mentioning. TREE Foundation, a Chennai-based non-profit, has been incessantly working on this. Their efforts on this front have shed light on the magnitude of the problem of ghost nets.
    • Stakeholders approach: Over the last 20 years, through a multi-disciplinary approach involving people from all sections of society particularly unemployed youth from artisanal fishing communities, the foundation has saved and released more than 3,101,000 Olive Ridley turtles.

    What should be the way forward?

    • National Marine litter Policy of India: The National Marine litter Policy of India, announced in 2018, should be formulated.
    • Plastic distribution study: Marine litter and microplastics distribution and characterization study should be conducted across the Indian coast.
    • Coastal city forum: A forum of coastal cities should be created for ensuring cross-learning ecosystem and to build a synergetic association of urban local bodies and local administration located on the coast.
    • Long term vision plan: A long-term vision plan should be developed for promoting partnerships among coastal towns, cities and urban administration for the reduction of marine litter and the creation of sustainable waste management ecosystems. Initiatives like a multi-stakeholder approach that will recognize knowledge, expertise, technology, research, capacity building and advocacy as key drivers to safeguard life below water can be beneficial.
    • Awareness campaign: Regular beach clean-up and awareness programmes should be conducted instead of annual ones.
    • Effective ban: Many states claim Single Use Plastic above 50 microns is banned, but on the ground, the ban is not effective. Steps can be taken to execute such legislations.

    Conclusion

    • Marine plastic pollution is killing the marine ecosystem, animals, plants and corals etc. apart from ocean trade land based plastic generation should be priorities while managing the marine pollution. Present approach of governments across the world is less than sufficient to tackle marine pollution.

    Mains Question

    Q. What are some of the initiatives to tackle the marine pollution in India? suggest the way forward to handle the menace of marine pollution.

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