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Subject: Geography

  • Read the rocks to improve India’s geological literacy

     

    PYQ Relevance: 

    Q Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Comment (10) (UPSC IAS/2018)

    Q Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness? Argue. (UPSC IAS/2020)

    Mentors’ comment: India, with its landscapes ranging from the world’s highest peaks to low-lying coastal plains, showcases a diverse morphology that has evolved over billions of years. Numerous locations feature a variety of rocks, minerals, and distinctive fossil assemblages. These geological features and landscapes reveal spectacular ‘origin’ stories based on scientific interpretations rather than mythology. India’s tumultuous geological past is etched in its rocks and terrains and should be regarded as part of our non-cultural heritage. The country offers many such examples. Geo-heritage sites serve as educational spaces where people can gain much-needed geological literacy, especially given India’s generally poor regard for this legacy.

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the news?

    India’s turbulent geological history is captured in its rocks and landscapes and should be regarded as part of our non-cultural heritage.

    Scant Traction in India:

    • Lack of Awareness and Importance: Despite international advancements in geological conservation, India has not prioritized geo-conservation, with many fossil-bearing sites destroyed due to development and real estate growth.
    • Destructive Activities: Stone mining activities, covering more than 10% of India’s total area, have led to significant destruction of geological sites, undermining the preservation of these natural laboratories.
    • Neglect of Geological Heritage: There is a paradox in India’s approach—seeking evidence of early life on Mars while destroying crucial geological evidence within its own territory, such as the little-known Dhala meteoritic impact crater.
    • Absence of Legislation: India lacks specific legislation or policies to protect geo-heritage, despite being a signatory to international agreements advocating geological conservation.

    Half-hearted Measures:

    • Abandoned Legislation Attempts: In 2009, a Bill to constitute a National Commission for Heritage Sites was introduced but later withdrawn, indicating a lack of commitment to geo-heritage conservation.
    • Ineffective Notification by GSI: The Geological Survey of India (GSI) has notified 34 geological monuments but lacks regulatory power to enforce preservation measures, leading to threats against these sites.
    • Draft Bill with No Progress: In 2022, the Ministry of Mines drafted a Bill for the preservation and maintenance of geo-heritage sites, but there has been no further progress, reflecting a lack of urgency and follow-through.
    • Recent Cliff Demolition Example: The demolition of part of the Varkala cliff, a designated geological heritage site, by the district administration citing landslide hazards highlights the inadequate protection and respect for such sites.

    Impact:

    • Loss of Scientific Knowledge: The destruction of fossil-bearing sites and other geological features due to development, real estate growth, and stone mining activities results in the permanent loss of invaluable scientific data. This hampers the understanding of India’s geological history and reduces opportunities for education and research in earth sciences.
    • Erosion of Cultural and Natural Heritage: Neglecting geological conservation undermines India’s rich natural heritage, which is integral to the country’s identity. The demolition of sites like the Varkala Cliff demonstrates a disregard for preserving unique geological formations that are part of India’s natural legacy.
    • Missed Economic Opportunities: Geo-heritage sites have the potential to attract tourism, contributing to local and national economies. The lack of legislative protection and promotion of these sites means missed opportunities for sustainable tourism development, which could generate income and create jobs while educating the public about the importance of geological conservation.

    Way forward: 

    • Legislative Framework for Geo-Conservation: Enact specific legislation to protect and conserve geo-heritage sites, similar to the Biological Diversity Act, 2002. This legislation should establish clear guidelines for the preservation, management, and sustainable use of geo-heritage sites, ensuring they are protected from destructive activities and development pressures.
    • National Geo-Conservation Authority: Establish a National Geo-Conservation Authority to oversee the identification, protection, and promotion of geo-heritage sites.  
    • Promotion of Geo-Tourism: Develop and promote geo-heritage sites as sustainable tourism destinations. This includes investing in infrastructure, providing educational resources, and marketing these sites to attract both domestic and international tourists.  

  • Why the Thar Desert on the borders of India and Pakistan is getting greener?

    Why in the news?

    Rajasthan’s barren Thar Desert may turn green, says a recent study in the journal Earth’s Future.  

    About Thar Desert

    • The Thar Desert is the 18th largest subtropical desert globally and is one of the most densely populated deserts.
    • Approximately 40% of the human population in Rajasthan resides in the Thar Desert.
    • It extends from the Sutlej River and is bounded by the Rann of Kutch, the Aravalli Mountains, and the Indus River.
    • About 85% of the Thar Desert is located in India, with the remainder in Pakistan. 
    • In India, it spans across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab as well.
    • Civilizations are believed to have thrived in the Thar region around 50,000 years ago across the extinct Saraswati River.
    • The Desert National Park (home to the endangered Great Indian Bustard, desert fox, desert cat, blackbuck, and Indian gazelle) is situated in the Thar Desert in the northwest Indian state of Rajasthan.

    Why the thar desert getting greener?

    • Climate Change Effects:
        • Alteration of Weather Patterns: Climate change is causing shifts in rainfall distribution in the thar desert area.
        • Potential for Vegetation Growth: The increased precipitation could provide favorable conditions for vegetation growth, contributing to the greening of the desert.
    • Indian Monsoon Dynamics:
        • Westward Extension of Indian Monsoon: The Indian monsoon, known for bringing heavy rainfall to eastern India, is now extending further westward into regions like the Thar Desert.
        • Impact on Moisture and Rainfall: This change in monsoon dynamics could lead to increased moisture and rainfall in the desert region, facilitating the growth of vegetation.
    • Expansion of Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP):
        • Influence on Monsoon Patterns: The Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP) influences monsoon patterns and rainfall distribution over the Indian subcontinent.
        • Westward Expansion due to Climate Change: Climate change is causing the IOWP to expand westward, potentially resulting in increased rainfall over semi-arid regions like the Thar Desert and promoting greening.
    • Water Management Practices:
        • Contribution to Greening: Effective water management practices, such as rainwater harvesting and irrigation techniques like johad, kuis, and kunds, may be playing a role in the greening of the Thar Desert.
        • Utilization of Water Resources: By harnessing and efficiently utilizing available water resources, local communities and authorities can support vegetation growth and ecosystem restoration efforts in the desert.
    • Introduction of Irrigation  
      • Commercial Cropping: Irrigation was introduced during British colonial rule in the 19th and 20th centuries to convert arid and semi-arid ecosystems into cropland.
      • Restrictions on Grazing: The right to graze animals was restricted to landowners who cultivated crops, leading to the transformation of nomadic pastoralists into sedentary agropastoralists.
    Sustainability of this transformation

    • Recent greening activities, largely on arid scrub savannahs, have threatened species adapted to such climates and have been linked to locust outbreaks.
    • The Indira Gandhi Canal project in the 1980s led to extensive crop cover in the Thar Desert, resulting in areas becoming infertile due to waterlogging and salinity.
    • Planting invasive species, such as prosopis juliflora and acacia tortilis, has led to habitat degradation and biodiversity loss.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit water loss?

    1. Hard and waxy leaves
    2. Tiny leaves
    3. Thorns instead of leaves

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 2 and 3 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2020] The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples.

    [2013] Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western side of the continents. Why?  

     

  • Critical Minerals under iCET

    Why in the News?

    What are Critical Minerals?

    • Critical minerals are elements that are crucial to modern-day technologies and are at risk of supply chain disruptions.
    • These minerals are mostly used in making electronic equipment such as mobile phones, computers, batteries, electric vehicles, and green technologies like solar panels and wind turbines.
    • Many of these are required to meet the manufacturing needs of green technologies, high-tech equipment, aviation, and national defence.

    List of critical minerals includes:

    The centre has released a list of 30 critical minerals for India in 2023:

    1. Identified Minerals: Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, Platinum Group elements (PGE), Phosphorous, Potash, Rare Earth Elements (REE), Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium and Cadmium.
    2. Fertilizer Minerals: Two minerals critical for fertilizer production, phosphorous and potash, are also included in the above list.

    Critical Mineral Blocks in India

    • Distribution: There are 20 blocks spread across eight states, including Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Jammu & Kashmir.
    • Types of Licenses: Four blocks are for a Mining License (ML), allowing immediate mining post-clearance. The remaining 16 blocks are for a Composite License (CL), permitting further exploration before potentially converting to an ML.
    • Approvals Required: Licensees must obtain various approvals, including forest clearance and environmental clearance.
    • Forest Land: Approximately 17% of the total concession area, or 1,234 hectares, is forest land.

    India’s Critical Mineral Imports

    • Lithium Imports: In FY23, India imported 2,145 tonnes of lithium carbonate and lithium oxide, costing Rs 732 crore.
    • Nickel and Copper Imports: The country imported 32,000 tonnes of unwrought nickel and 1.2 million tonnes of copper ore, costing Rs 6,549 crore and Rs 27,374 crore, respectively.
    • Import Dependence: India relies entirely on imports for lithium and nickel, and 93% for copper.

    Country-wise dependence:

    1. China: India heavily relies on China for the import of critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite.
    2. Australia: India is actively engaged with Australia for acquiring mineral assets, particularly lithium and cobalt, to secure its supply chain for critical minerals.
    3. Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile: India is engaging with these countries, known for their reserves of battery metals like lithium and cobalt, to diversify its sources for critical minerals.

    India’s Strategic Mineral Initiatives

    • Amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 support expanded exploration.
    • Establishment of Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. (KABIL) with equity from National Aluminium Company Ltd, Hindustan Copper Ltd, and Mineral Exploration and Consultancy Ltd for global mineral asset acquisition.

    International Collaborations and Partnerships

    • India joined the U.S.-led mineral security partnership to secure critical mineral supply chains.
    • Creation of an India-U.S. advanced materials research forum to foster collaboration in universities, laboratories, and private sectors.
    • Bilateral technology collaboration on neodymium-iron-boron and studies on minerals like lithium, titanium, gallium, and vanadium.

    Back2Basics: Indo-US Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (iCET)

    Details
    Initiation Announced in May 2022, officially launched in January 2023
    Management Overseen by the National Security Councils of India and the US
    Objectives Enhance bilateral cooperation in critical and emerging technologies
    Focus Areas of the Initiative
    1. AI Research Agency Partnership
    2. Defense Industrial and Technological Cooperation
    3. Innovation Ecosystems
    4. Semiconductor Ecosystem Development
    5. Cooperation on Human Spaceflight
    6. Advancement in 5G and 6G Technologies
    Key Achievements
    • Quantum Coordination Mechanism
    • Public-private dialogues on telecommunications and AI
    • MoU on semiconductor supply chain
    • Defense industrial cooperation roadmap
    Upcoming Initiatives
    • Finalization of major jet engine deal
    • Launch of India-US Defence Acceleration Ecosystem (INDUS-X)
    • Strategic Trade Dialogue establishment

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements:

    1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
    2. State governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
    3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • ‘Cold Lava’ Rivers flow in Philippines after Mount Canlaon eruption

    Why in the News?

    • After Mount Canlaon erupted in the Philippines, cold lava started flowing through streets and rivers.
      • It was followed by ashfall, and dangers like floods and mudflows downstream.

    What is Cold Lava?

    • Cold lava, also known as “lahar,” is a mixture of water and rock fragments that flows rapidly down the slopes of a volcano, often triggered by heavy rainfall or volcanic eruptions.
    • The mixture forms a concrete-like substance that destroys everything in its path.
    • This can also include smooth, glassy textures or rough and jagged textures.

    Another example of cold Lava in the world

    • Mount Merapi, Indonesia (2023): An eruption of Mount Merapi resulted in the deaths of at least 23 climbers and spewed ash up to 3,000 meters into the air, covering towns and villages

    How harmful is Cold Lava?

    • Rain can carry cold lava down the slopes of a volcano during an eruption and into the path of nearby towns or villages.
    • According to the United States Geological Survey, cold lava has the power to crush and bury things in its path.
    • It also moves quickly like wet concrete and is considered more destructive than hot lava.

    About Mount Canlaon

    • Mount Canlaon, located in the Philippines, is an active stratovolcano known for its frequent eruptions and volcanic activity.
    • It is situated on the island of Negros in the Visayas region of the Philippines.
    • It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, known for its high volcanic activity.
    • It poses hazards such as ash fall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (mudflows) that can endanger nearby communities and agriculture.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.

  • Why heatwaves have not been included as a notified disaster in the Disaster Management Act?

    Why in the news?

    The current period of intense heat in several regions has once more sparked debates about the potential inclusion of heatwaves as officially recognized disasters under the Disaster Management (DM) Act of 2005.

    What are Notified Disasters?

    • According to the Disaster Management (DM) Act, 2005, a disaster is defined as a “catastrophe, mishap, calamity, or grave occurrence” arising from natural or man-made causes that result in substantial loss of life, destruction of property, or environmental damage and is beyond the coping capacity of the affected community.
    • Funds: The DM Act allows states to draw money from the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) and the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) for managing these disasters.
    • Current Notified Disasters: There are currently 12 categories of notified disasters: cyclones, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunamis, hailstorms, landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts, pest attacks, and frost and cold waves.

    Why Heatwaves Were Not Included as Notified Disasters?

    • Common Occurrence: Heatwaves were historically considered regular events during summer months in many parts of India. They were not seen as exceptional or unusual disasters warranting specific disaster management provisions under the DM Act, 2005.
    • Perception of Predictability: Unlike sudden-onset disasters such as earthquakes or cyclones, heatwaves were perceived as relatively predictable and part of seasonal weather patterns. This perception led to a belief that they could be managed through general public awareness and local interventions rather than formal disaster response mechanisms.
    • Not fit in definition of Disaster: When the DM Act was formulated, disasters were defined as events that caused substantial loss of life, property, or environmental damage beyond the coping capacity of the affected community. At that time, the impacts of heatwaves were typically viewed as localized health issues rather than widespread disasters.
    • Lack of Urgency: There was a lack of urgency in recognizing heatwaves as disasters requiring national-level response frameworks. The focus of disaster management efforts initially leaned towards more acute and visible calamities like cyclones, floods, and earthquakes.

    Why is the Centre Not Adding Heatwaves as a Notified Disaster Now?

    • Financial Concerns: One of the primary concerns is the potential financial burden of declaring heat waves as a notified disaster. Under the current provisions, the government is obligated to provide monetary compensation for lives lost during notified disasters, which is set at Rs 4 lakh per victim.
    • The reluctance of Finance Commissions: Despite requests from various states, the 15th Finance Commission has not recommended adding heatwaves to the list of notified disasters. They argue that the existing categories adequately cover disaster response needs, and they have provided provisions for states to utilize a portion of the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) for local disasters like heatwaves.

    Conclusion: Engage with the Finance Commission and other relevant bodies to reassess the inclusion of heatwaves as a notified disaster. Highlight the evolving nature of heat waves, their increasing frequency, and the need for dedicated funding and support mechanisms.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?  (UPSC IAS/2017)

  • In news: Volkhov River

    Why in the News?

    Four medical students from India studying in a university in Russia drowned in Volkhov River near St. Petersburg.

    About Volkhov River

    • The Volkhov River is a significant waterway in northwestern Russia.
    • It is located in the Leningrad Oblast and Novgorod Oblast of Russia, in the northwestern part of the country.
    • It stretches approximately 224 kilometers (139 miles) from Lake Ilmen to Lake Ladoga.
    • Origin: It flows out of Lake Ilmen north into Lake Ladoga, the largest lake in Europe.
    • Tributaries: The Msta River is the largest tributary of the Volkhov.
    • Major Cities: Several cities and settlements are situated along the banks of the Volkhov River, including Novgorod, Veliky Novgorod, and Volkhov.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Consider the following pairs:

    River – Flows into

    1. Mekong – Andaman sea
    2. Thames – Irish Sea
    3. Volga – Caspian Sea
    4. Zambezi – Indian Ocean

    Which of the pairs above is/are correctly matched?

    (a) Only 1

    (b) Only 2

    (c) 3 Only

    (d) None of the above/More than one of the above.

  • What’s missing in the disaster database?

    Why in the news?

    The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations noted a rise in global disasters from roughly 100 yearly in the 1970s to about 400 in recent years, influenced partly by reporting biases.

    Recent Observations

    • Increase in Disaster Events: The number of disaster events reported worldwide has risen from 100 events per year in the 1970s to around 400 per year in the last 20 years. Patterns in disaster data reveal factors such as increased resilience, climate change, and improved humanitarian response.
    • Improved Reporting: Reporting of small events, particularly those with fewer than 200 deaths, has increased significantly since the 1980s and 1990s. Historical data mainly included major events due to limited interest and capacity for data collection in earlier periods.

    Missing Data and Limitations of Disaster Databases

    • Biases and Gaps in Historical Records: Earlier records predominantly captured major disasters, with smaller events often missing. Data coverage is particularly poor in low-income regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where economic losses from disasters are frequently underreported.
    • Missing Economic Damage and Insured Losses: More than 40% of disasters between 1990 and 2020 lacked estimates of monetary damages. Insured damages were missing in 88% of disaster reports, and 96% needed records of reconstruction costs.
    • No coverage of Heat Events and Health Impacts: Reporting of heat events is concentrated in a few countries, suggesting underreporting in other regions. Indirect health effects of extreme temperatures, such as increased cardiovascular disease risk, are challenging to quantify and often underestimated.

    Need for Data (Way Forward) 

    • Improving Data Coverage: Enhanced data collection in low-income regions and better integration of smaller events into disaster databases are crucial.
    • Accurate Health Impact Quantification: Improved methods for estimating indirect health effects of extreme temperatures and other disaster-related conditions are needed. Utilising statistical methods to capture the broader health impacts of disasters can aid in better policy formulation.
    • Policy and Resilience Planning: Reliable and comprehensive disaster data are essential for effective policy-making and resilience planning. Data-driven insights and predictive analytics can help foresee the long-term impacts of disasters and guide regulatory measures to enhance disaster preparedness and response.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • Hunga Tonga Volcanic Eruption

    Why in the News?

    Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai (Hunga Tonga) erupted in Tonga, triggering a tsunami and global seismic waves.

    About Hunga Tonga Volcano

    • The Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano is situated in the western South Pacific Ocean, west of the main inhabited islands in the Kingdom of Tonga. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire.
    • It forms part of the Tofua Arc, within the larger Tonga-Kermadec volcanic arc, resulting from the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Indo-Australian Plate.
    • It comprises two small uninhabited islands, Hunga-Ha’apai and Hunga-Tonga.
    • Hunga Tonga is one of 12 confirmed submarine volcanoes along the Tofua Arc.

    Key Findings on Hunga Tonga Eruption

    • The Hunga Tonga eruption primarily emitted water vapour, which reached the stratosphere, affecting ozone depletion and acting as a potent greenhouse gas. Minimal smoke was produced.

    Impact on Weather

    • Ozone Hole: The study reveals that Hunga Tonga contributed to the exceptionally large ozone hole in the preceding year and the unexpectedly wet summer of 2024.
    • Global Mean Temperatures: While the eruption had a negligible effect on global temperatures, it induced lasting regional disruptions in atmospheric wave patterns.
      • Traditionally, massive volcanic eruptions reduce temperatures by emitting sulfur dioxide, which forms sulphate aerosols reflecting sunlight.
    • Regional Effects: Anticipated changes include colder and wet winters in northern Australia, warmer winters in North America, and colder winters in Scandinavia until approximately 2029.

    Do you know?

    Previous volcanic eruptions, such as Tambora in 1815 and Samalas in 1257, have significantly impacted global climate, leading to phenomena like the “year without a summer” and the onset of the Little Ice Age.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.

  • Sundhnuksgigar Volcano erupts in Iceland

    Why in the News?

    Southwest Iceland witnessed the eruption of the Sundhnuksgigar volcano, triggering evacuations in the nearby areas.

    About Sundhnuksgigar Volcano 

    • Sundhnuksgigar is a row of craters just outside the town of Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula
    • It is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent boundary where the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates are moving apart.

    What is a Volcano?

    • A volcano is a fissure or vent in the Earth’s crust through which gases, molten rock materials (lava), ash, steam, sulphur dioxide etc., are expelled during an eruption.
    • These openings occur where the rock layers in the Earth’s crust are relatively weak.
    • Volcanic activity is categorized as an endogenic process, originating from within the Earth.
    • Depending on the explosivity of the volcano, various extrusive and intrusive landforms can be formed.

    Different types of volcanoes can be classified based on the frequency of eruption and the nature of the eruption:

    1.   Frequency of eruption:

    • Active volcanoes: Frequent eruptions in Pacific Ring of Fire: New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Japan, western Americas. Linked to plate tectonics, like Kilauea and Santa Maria. High seismicity, volcanic activity.
    • Dormant Volcanoes: These are not currently erupting but have the potential to erupt again in the future. An example is Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, the highest mountain in Africa.
    • Extinct or inactive volcanoes: These have not erupted in the distant geological past. Dhinodhar Hill in Gujarat is an example.

    2.   Nature of Eruption:

    • Shield Volcanoes: Largest and least explosive volcanoes, formed from basalt lava. Often low in explosivity, except when water interacts. Hawaiian volcanoes exemplify this..
    • Composite Volcanoes: Volcanoes with cooler, thicker lava, built up through explosive eruptions. Layer ash, pyroclastic material, and lava flow. Examples: Mayon, Fuji, Rainier.
    • Calderas: The most explosive volcanoes, prone to collapsing inward during eruptions rather than building upwards. The resulting depressions are called calderas.
    • Flood Basalt Provinces: These volcanoes erupt highly fluid lava that travels long distances, covering vast areas with thick basalt flows.

    Reasons for Iceland’s Volcanism

    • Tectonic Activity: Iceland is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian and North American plates diverge. This creates volcanic rift zones where magma rises to the surface, leading to eruptions.
    • Hotspots: Additionally, Iceland is positioned over a hotspot, contributing to heightened volcanic activity. Hotspots are areas where magma from the mantle rises towards the surface, fueling eruptions.
    • Subglacial Volcanism: Iceland’s volcanic activity is not limited to the surface; some eruptions occur beneath glaciers, leading to explosive interactions between lava and ice. These subglacial eruptions can produce powerful steam explosions, ash clouds, and catastrophic floods known as jokulhlaup.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their impact on the regional environment.

    [2013] Consider the following:

    1. Electromagnetic radiation
    2. Geothermal energy
    3. Gravitational force
    4. Plate movements
    5. Rotation of the earth
    6. Revolution of the earth

    Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only

    (b) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only

    (c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

  • In news: Sharavathi River

    Why in the News?

    The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has directed the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and the mines and geology department to stop any unlawful/illegal sand mining in the Sharavathi River coastal zone.

    About National Green Tribunal (NGT)

    Description
    Establishment Formed in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act as a statutory body.
    Objective
    • To deal with cases related to environmental issues and ensure speedy implementation of decisions.
    • Responsible for giving many prominent decisions aimed at environmental protection, including addressing air pollution in Delhi and canceling coal block clearances.
    Composition
    • Headquartered in Delhi, chaired by a retired Supreme Court judge
    • Included Judicial Members and Expert Panel.
    Powers Empowered to decide on questions related to various environmental laws and hear civil cases concerning environmental issues:

    1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
    2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
    3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
    4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
    5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
    6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
    7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
    Exceptions Prohibited to hear any issues which are covered under:

    1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927,
    2. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and
    3. Any other laws made by States which are related to protection of trees, forests, etc.
    Places
    • Principal bench in Delhi;
    • Additional benches in Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, and Chennai.
    Governing Principles
    • Governed by principles of natural justice, not bound by Indian Evidence Act.
    • Applies principles of sustainable development, precautionary, and polluter pays.
    Review and Challenge
    • NGT orders can be reviewed as per Rule 22 of NGT Rules.
    • Can be challenged before the Supreme Court within 90 days.
    Jurisdiction
    • Jurisdiction over all civil cases involving a substantial question relating to environment.
    • Powers vested are the same as in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.
    • Decisions are binding.
    Disposal of Cases Disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same.

    About Sharavathi River

    • It originates and flows entirely within Karnataka.
    • It is among the few westward-flowing rivers in the country and a significant part of its basin lies in the Western Ghats.
    • Origin: The river originates at Ambutheertha in the Thirthahalli taluk.
    • Legend: According to ancient legend, the god Rama shot an arrow (Ambu) into the ground to quench his wife Sita’s thirst. The water that poured out was named “Thirtha,” hence the river’s name “Sharavati,” with “Shara” meaning arrow.

    Geography and Length:

    • The river stretches about 128 km (80 mi) and joins the Arabian Sea at Honnavar in Uttara Kannada district.
    • Jog Falls, formed by the Sharavati River, is located approximately 25 km from Siddapura.

    Tributaries and Basin:

    • Major tributaries: Nandihole, Haridravathi, Mavinahole, Hilkunji, Yennehole, Hurlihole, and Nagodihole.
    • River basin: divided between Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts.
    • Pre-Cambrian rocks, including the Dharwar system and peninsular gneiss, dominate the basin.

    Soils and Agriculture:

    • Soils in the basin are predominantly lateritic and tend to be acidic, ranging from clay loamy to loamy.
    • Four soil orders are found: ultisols, alfisols, inceptisols, and entisols.

    Dams:

    • The Linganamakki Dam, constructed in 1964, spans the Sharavati River, with a catchment area of nearly 1,991.71 km2.
    • The Gerusoppa Dam, completed in 2002, primarily serves for electricity generation.

    Flora and Fauna:

    • The Sharavati Valley Wildlife Sanctuary declared in 1972, protects diverse ecosystems and endangered species.
    • The river basin is rich in biodiversity, home to rare species of flora and fauna.

    Regulation of Sand Mining in India:

    Mines and Minerals Act, 1957
    Definition of Sand as a Minor Mineral Sand is categorized as a minor mineral under section 3(e) of the MMDR Act.
    State Governments’ Role Section 15 empowers state governments to regulate mineral concessions for minor minerals, leading to the formulation of state-specific concession rules.
    Control of Illegal Mining Section 23C places the jurisdiction over controlling illegal mining under the purview of state governments.

    Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines, 2016
    Purpose Released by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, aims to promote scientific and environmentally friendly sand mining practices.
    Recommendations Emphasizes sustainable sand extraction, monitoring, and district-wise mapping of sand availability.

    Sand Mining Framework, 2018
    Issued by Released by the Ministry of Mines, provides states with guidance for policy formulation and combating illegal sand mining.
    Recommended Measures Suggests geo-fencing, GPS-enabled transportation tracking, price control, involvement of women’s self-help groups, and exploration of alternative sand sources.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which of the following is/are the possible consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds?

    1. Decreased salinity in the river
    2. Pollution of groundwater
    3. Lowering of the water-table

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2019] With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements :

    1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
    2. State governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
    3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3