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Subject: Geography

  • In news: Volkhov River

    Why in the News?

    Four medical students from India studying in a university in Russia drowned in Volkhov River near St. Petersburg.

    About Volkhov River

    • The Volkhov River is a significant waterway in northwestern Russia.
    • It is located in the Leningrad Oblast and Novgorod Oblast of Russia, in the northwestern part of the country.
    • It stretches approximately 224 kilometers (139 miles) from Lake Ilmen to Lake Ladoga.
    • Origin: It flows out of Lake Ilmen north into Lake Ladoga, the largest lake in Europe.
    • Tributaries: The Msta River is the largest tributary of the Volkhov.
    • Major Cities: Several cities and settlements are situated along the banks of the Volkhov River, including Novgorod, Veliky Novgorod, and Volkhov.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Consider the following pairs:

    River – Flows into

    1. Mekong – Andaman sea
    2. Thames – Irish Sea
    3. Volga – Caspian Sea
    4. Zambezi – Indian Ocean

    Which of the pairs above is/are correctly matched?

    (a) Only 1

    (b) Only 2

    (c) 3 Only

    (d) None of the above/More than one of the above.

  • What’s missing in the disaster database?

    Why in the news?

    The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations noted a rise in global disasters from roughly 100 yearly in the 1970s to about 400 in recent years, influenced partly by reporting biases.

    Recent Observations

    • Increase in Disaster Events: The number of disaster events reported worldwide has risen from 100 events per year in the 1970s to around 400 per year in the last 20 years. Patterns in disaster data reveal factors such as increased resilience, climate change, and improved humanitarian response.
    • Improved Reporting: Reporting of small events, particularly those with fewer than 200 deaths, has increased significantly since the 1980s and 1990s. Historical data mainly included major events due to limited interest and capacity for data collection in earlier periods.

    Missing Data and Limitations of Disaster Databases

    • Biases and Gaps in Historical Records: Earlier records predominantly captured major disasters, with smaller events often missing. Data coverage is particularly poor in low-income regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where economic losses from disasters are frequently underreported.
    • Missing Economic Damage and Insured Losses: More than 40% of disasters between 1990 and 2020 lacked estimates of monetary damages. Insured damages were missing in 88% of disaster reports, and 96% needed records of reconstruction costs.
    • No coverage of Heat Events and Health Impacts: Reporting of heat events is concentrated in a few countries, suggesting underreporting in other regions. Indirect health effects of extreme temperatures, such as increased cardiovascular disease risk, are challenging to quantify and often underestimated.

    Need for Data (Way Forward) 

    • Improving Data Coverage: Enhanced data collection in low-income regions and better integration of smaller events into disaster databases are crucial.
    • Accurate Health Impact Quantification: Improved methods for estimating indirect health effects of extreme temperatures and other disaster-related conditions are needed. Utilising statistical methods to capture the broader health impacts of disasters can aid in better policy formulation.
    • Policy and Resilience Planning: Reliable and comprehensive disaster data are essential for effective policy-making and resilience planning. Data-driven insights and predictive analytics can help foresee the long-term impacts of disasters and guide regulatory measures to enhance disaster preparedness and response.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • Hunga Tonga Volcanic Eruption

    Why in the News?

    Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai (Hunga Tonga) erupted in Tonga, triggering a tsunami and global seismic waves.

    About Hunga Tonga Volcano

    • The Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano is situated in the western South Pacific Ocean, west of the main inhabited islands in the Kingdom of Tonga. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire.
    • It forms part of the Tofua Arc, within the larger Tonga-Kermadec volcanic arc, resulting from the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Indo-Australian Plate.
    • It comprises two small uninhabited islands, Hunga-Ha’apai and Hunga-Tonga.
    • Hunga Tonga is one of 12 confirmed submarine volcanoes along the Tofua Arc.

    Key Findings on Hunga Tonga Eruption

    • The Hunga Tonga eruption primarily emitted water vapour, which reached the stratosphere, affecting ozone depletion and acting as a potent greenhouse gas. Minimal smoke was produced.

    Impact on Weather

    • Ozone Hole: The study reveals that Hunga Tonga contributed to the exceptionally large ozone hole in the preceding year and the unexpectedly wet summer of 2024.
    • Global Mean Temperatures: While the eruption had a negligible effect on global temperatures, it induced lasting regional disruptions in atmospheric wave patterns.
      • Traditionally, massive volcanic eruptions reduce temperatures by emitting sulfur dioxide, which forms sulphate aerosols reflecting sunlight.
    • Regional Effects: Anticipated changes include colder and wet winters in northern Australia, warmer winters in North America, and colder winters in Scandinavia until approximately 2029.

    Do you know?

    Previous volcanic eruptions, such as Tambora in 1815 and Samalas in 1257, have significantly impacted global climate, leading to phenomena like the “year without a summer” and the onset of the Little Ice Age.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.

  • Sundhnuksgigar Volcano erupts in Iceland

    Why in the News?

    Southwest Iceland witnessed the eruption of the Sundhnuksgigar volcano, triggering evacuations in the nearby areas.

    About Sundhnuksgigar Volcano 

    • Sundhnuksgigar is a row of craters just outside the town of Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula
    • It is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent boundary where the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates are moving apart.

    What is a Volcano?

    • A volcano is a fissure or vent in the Earth’s crust through which gases, molten rock materials (lava), ash, steam, sulphur dioxide etc., are expelled during an eruption.
    • These openings occur where the rock layers in the Earth’s crust are relatively weak.
    • Volcanic activity is categorized as an endogenic process, originating from within the Earth.
    • Depending on the explosivity of the volcano, various extrusive and intrusive landforms can be formed.

    Different types of volcanoes can be classified based on the frequency of eruption and the nature of the eruption:

    1.   Frequency of eruption:

    • Active volcanoes: Frequent eruptions in Pacific Ring of Fire: New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Japan, western Americas. Linked to plate tectonics, like Kilauea and Santa Maria. High seismicity, volcanic activity.
    • Dormant Volcanoes: These are not currently erupting but have the potential to erupt again in the future. An example is Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, the highest mountain in Africa.
    • Extinct or inactive volcanoes: These have not erupted in the distant geological past. Dhinodhar Hill in Gujarat is an example.

    2.   Nature of Eruption:

    • Shield Volcanoes: Largest and least explosive volcanoes, formed from basalt lava. Often low in explosivity, except when water interacts. Hawaiian volcanoes exemplify this..
    • Composite Volcanoes: Volcanoes with cooler, thicker lava, built up through explosive eruptions. Layer ash, pyroclastic material, and lava flow. Examples: Mayon, Fuji, Rainier.
    • Calderas: The most explosive volcanoes, prone to collapsing inward during eruptions rather than building upwards. The resulting depressions are called calderas.
    • Flood Basalt Provinces: These volcanoes erupt highly fluid lava that travels long distances, covering vast areas with thick basalt flows.

    Reasons for Iceland’s Volcanism

    • Tectonic Activity: Iceland is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian and North American plates diverge. This creates volcanic rift zones where magma rises to the surface, leading to eruptions.
    • Hotspots: Additionally, Iceland is positioned over a hotspot, contributing to heightened volcanic activity. Hotspots are areas where magma from the mantle rises towards the surface, fueling eruptions.
    • Subglacial Volcanism: Iceland’s volcanic activity is not limited to the surface; some eruptions occur beneath glaciers, leading to explosive interactions between lava and ice. These subglacial eruptions can produce powerful steam explosions, ash clouds, and catastrophic floods known as jokulhlaup.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their impact on the regional environment.

    [2013] Consider the following:

    1. Electromagnetic radiation
    2. Geothermal energy
    3. Gravitational force
    4. Plate movements
    5. Rotation of the earth
    6. Revolution of the earth

    Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only

    (b) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only

    (c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

  • In news: Sharavathi River

    Why in the News?

    The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has directed the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and the mines and geology department to stop any unlawful/illegal sand mining in the Sharavathi River coastal zone.

    About National Green Tribunal (NGT)

    Description
    Establishment Formed in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act as a statutory body.
    Objective
    • To deal with cases related to environmental issues and ensure speedy implementation of decisions.
    • Responsible for giving many prominent decisions aimed at environmental protection, including addressing air pollution in Delhi and canceling coal block clearances.
    Composition
    • Headquartered in Delhi, chaired by a retired Supreme Court judge
    • Included Judicial Members and Expert Panel.
    Powers Empowered to decide on questions related to various environmental laws and hear civil cases concerning environmental issues:

    1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
    2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
    3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
    4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
    5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
    6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
    7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
    Exceptions Prohibited to hear any issues which are covered under:

    1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927,
    2. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and
    3. Any other laws made by States which are related to protection of trees, forests, etc.
    Places
    • Principal bench in Delhi;
    • Additional benches in Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, and Chennai.
    Governing Principles
    • Governed by principles of natural justice, not bound by Indian Evidence Act.
    • Applies principles of sustainable development, precautionary, and polluter pays.
    Review and Challenge
    • NGT orders can be reviewed as per Rule 22 of NGT Rules.
    • Can be challenged before the Supreme Court within 90 days.
    Jurisdiction
    • Jurisdiction over all civil cases involving a substantial question relating to environment.
    • Powers vested are the same as in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.
    • Decisions are binding.
    Disposal of Cases Disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same.

    About Sharavathi River

    • It originates and flows entirely within Karnataka.
    • It is among the few westward-flowing rivers in the country and a significant part of its basin lies in the Western Ghats.
    • Origin: The river originates at Ambutheertha in the Thirthahalli taluk.
    • Legend: According to ancient legend, the god Rama shot an arrow (Ambu) into the ground to quench his wife Sita’s thirst. The water that poured out was named “Thirtha,” hence the river’s name “Sharavati,” with “Shara” meaning arrow.

    Geography and Length:

    • The river stretches about 128 km (80 mi) and joins the Arabian Sea at Honnavar in Uttara Kannada district.
    • Jog Falls, formed by the Sharavati River, is located approximately 25 km from Siddapura.

    Tributaries and Basin:

    • Major tributaries: Nandihole, Haridravathi, Mavinahole, Hilkunji, Yennehole, Hurlihole, and Nagodihole.
    • River basin: divided between Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts.
    • Pre-Cambrian rocks, including the Dharwar system and peninsular gneiss, dominate the basin.

    Soils and Agriculture:

    • Soils in the basin are predominantly lateritic and tend to be acidic, ranging from clay loamy to loamy.
    • Four soil orders are found: ultisols, alfisols, inceptisols, and entisols.

    Dams:

    • The Linganamakki Dam, constructed in 1964, spans the Sharavati River, with a catchment area of nearly 1,991.71 km2.
    • The Gerusoppa Dam, completed in 2002, primarily serves for electricity generation.

    Flora and Fauna:

    • The Sharavati Valley Wildlife Sanctuary declared in 1972, protects diverse ecosystems and endangered species.
    • The river basin is rich in biodiversity, home to rare species of flora and fauna.

    Regulation of Sand Mining in India:

    Mines and Minerals Act, 1957
    Definition of Sand as a Minor Mineral Sand is categorized as a minor mineral under section 3(e) of the MMDR Act.
    State Governments’ Role Section 15 empowers state governments to regulate mineral concessions for minor minerals, leading to the formulation of state-specific concession rules.
    Control of Illegal Mining Section 23C places the jurisdiction over controlling illegal mining under the purview of state governments.

    Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines, 2016
    Purpose Released by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, aims to promote scientific and environmentally friendly sand mining practices.
    Recommendations Emphasizes sustainable sand extraction, monitoring, and district-wise mapping of sand availability.

    Sand Mining Framework, 2018
    Issued by Released by the Ministry of Mines, provides states with guidance for policy formulation and combating illegal sand mining.
    Recommended Measures Suggests geo-fencing, GPS-enabled transportation tracking, price control, involvement of women’s self-help groups, and exploration of alternative sand sources.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which of the following is/are the possible consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds?

    1. Decreased salinity in the river
    2. Pollution of groundwater
    3. Lowering of the water-table

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2019] With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements :

    1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
    2. State governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
    3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • What are fire safety rules, and why are there compliance challenges? | Explained 

    Why in the News?

    Recent fire tragedies at a Rajkot gaming zone and a Delhi children’s hospital that killed 40 people highlight the urgent need for stricter fire safety enforcement.

    According to the latest Accidental Deaths and Suicides in India (ADSI) report

    • It was released by the “National Crimes Records Bureau (NCRB)”
    • In 2022, 7,435 people died in over 7,500 fire accidents. This data shows that heavy casualties from fire accidents persist, with no lessons learned from the 1997 Uphaar Cinema tragedy or the 2004 Kumbakonam fire that killed 90 schoolchildren.

    What are the various laws and guidelines which stipulate rules around fire safety in buildings? 

    • National Building Code (NBC): Published by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) in 1970, last updated in 2016.
      • Part 4 of NBC is about the details of fire safety measures, including construction guidelines, materials, and safety protocols. They are mandatory for states to incorporate NBC recommendations into local buildings.
    • Model Building Bye Laws 2016: It is issued by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. It guides States/UTs in framing building bylaws with norms for fire protection and safety.
    • State Fire Services Act: Fire services are a state subject, and individual states have their own Fire Services Acts or building bylaws.
    • National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) Guidelines: Provide fire safety instructions for homes, schools, and hospitals. Include recommendations on maintaining safety spaces, exit mechanisms, dedicated staircases, and evacuation drills.

    Key Points from Fire Safety Regulations by Government:

    • Building Classification: Buildings are classified based on occupancy (e.g., Residential, Institutional, Assembly). Specific measures for high-rise buildings, educational institutes, hotels, etc.
    • Construction Material: Use of non-combustible materials. Internal walls of staircases should have a minimum 120-minute fire rating.
    • Electrical Safety: Flame retardant wiring and cabling. Separate shafts for different voltage wiring, sealed with fire-stop materials.
    • Emergency Power and Signage: Provision of emergency lighting, fire alarm systems, and public address systems. Clear exit signage and escape lighting.
    • Technological Measures: Automatic fire detection and alarm systems.Down-comer pipelines, dry riser pipelines, automatic sprinklers, fire barriers, and fireman’s lifts.

    Challenges in Fire Safety Compliance

    • Lack of Uniform Legislation: Fire safety rules exist in all States, with many drawing from the NBC. However, due to the absence of uniform safety legislation and the NBC being a “recommendatory document,“ its provisions are frequently ignored at the local level.
    • Inadequate Fire Safety Audits: Local bodies fail to conduct regular fire safety checks, leading to non-compliance.
    • Staff Shortages: Insufficient staffing in fire departments exacerbates enforcement issues.
    • Community Awareness and Preparedness: Need for better community awareness and training on fire safety protocols and emergency response.

    Judicial responses to negligence over Public Safety

    • Apex Court: The Judiciary has frequently pulled up state authorities for failure to enforce fire safety regulations. It highlighted the laxity in compliance and the need for stringent enforcement.
    • Legal Actions: Cases like the Rajkot gaming zone fire reveal the consequences of not adhering to fire safety norms. Courts have mandated regular fire safety audits and strict adherence to NBC guidelines.
    • The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) emphasized the need for building community resilience and compliance with safety norms.
    • The report on “Fires in India: Learning Lessons for Urban Safety” underscored the failure of authorities to learn from past tragedies and enforce fire safety measures.

    Way forward:

    • Building some National Standards: The National Building Code (NBC) needs to be converted from a recommendatory document to a mandatory standard across all states.
    • Regular Inspections: Mandate regular and frequent fire safety audits by local authorities.
    • Transparent Assessment: Allow third-party certified agencies to conduct independent fire safety audits to ensure unbiased assessments.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • In news: Campi Flegrei Super Volcano 

    Why in the News?

    A 4.4 magnitude earthquake struck Italy’s Campi Flegrei super volcano, with Pozzuoli as the epicentre. Felt as far as Naples, it’s the strongest tremor in 40 years

    Bradyseism Concerns near Campi Flegrei:

    • Campi Flegrei is prone to bradyseism, where ground elevation changes due to subsurface pressure.
    • The area, located 50 kilometres from Mt. Vesuvius, is undergoing a new cycle of bradyseism, according to volcanologists.
    • Over 500,000 people reside in the red zone adjacent to Campi Flegrei, prompting the Italian Civil Protection Agency to update evacuation plans.

    About Campi Flegrei Volcano

    • Campi Flegrei, also known as the Phlegraean Fields, is a large volcanic area located in the western suburbs of Naples, Italy.
    • It is one of the most active volcanic systems in the world and has been active for at least 50,000 years.

    Its Volcanic System:

    • Location: Campi Flegrei is situated within the Campanian volcanic arc in southern Italy, extending from the city of Naples to the Gulf of Pozzuoli.
    • Geological Formation: The volcanic system of Campi Flegrei is characterized by a large caldera, which is a collapsed volcanic crater, surrounded by numerous volcanic vents, craters, and lava domes. The caldera has a diameter of about 13 kilometers (8 miles).
    • Volcanic Activity: Campi Flegrei is considered a supervolcano due to its size and potential for large eruptions. It has experienced numerous periods of volcanic activity throughout its history, including explosive eruptions, lava flows, and phreatic (steam-driven) eruptions.
    • Terrain Features: The landscape of Campi Flegrei is characterized by volcanic features such as craters, fumaroles (steam vents), mud pots, and hot springs.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in ‘2021’ and their impact on regional environment.

    [2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
    2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
    3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1 and 3

  • Cyclone Remal to make landfall

    Why in the News?

    • Cyclone Remal is forecasted to make landfall between Sagar Island in West Bengal and Bangladesh’s Khepupara on Sunday midnight.
    • The name ‘Remal’ originates from Oman and means ‘sand’ in Arabic.

    What are Cyclones?

    • Cyclones are wind systems rotating inwardly towards an area of low atmospheric pressure. They are categorised into Tropical (Temperature-induced) and Temperate (extra-tropical) cyclones(airmass-induced).
    • Formation Conditions: Tropical cyclones originate in warm regions, requiring conditions such as
    1. Warm sea surface (> 27°C),
    2. Coriolis Force,
    3. Pre-existing low-pressure systems,
    4. Small vertical wind speed differences, and
    5. Upper air divergence.

    Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones:

    • They form over warm water bodies due to energy derived from the condensation of warm water within cumulonimbus clouds.
    • Wind rotation is influenced by the Coriolis force, resulting in anti-clockwise rotation in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

    Regional Movement of Cyclones:

    • In the northern hemisphere, cyclones initially move westward under earth rotation and the Easterlies.
    • As they progress towards higher latitudes, the Coriolis force deflects them rightward, towards north and later east.
    • By 30° latitude, the diminished warmth halts cyclone activity.

    Naming of Cyclones: 

    • Responsibility of RSMCs and TCWCs: The naming of cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world is carried out by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs).
    • Procedure in the North Indian Ocean: For north Indian Ocean including Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, the RSMC, New Delhi assigns the name to tropical cyclones following a standard procedure.
    • Agreement by WMO/ESCAP Panel: The WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones in 2000 agreed in principle to assign names to the tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
    • Selection Process: Each country would sent their suggestions, based on which the Panel would finalise a list.
    • Retirement of Names: Generally, names of some storms that cause widespread damage and deaths are usually retired and are not brought back or reused later, at least for 10 years. These names are then replaced with new names.
    • Unique Policy for North Indian Ocean: Unlike in other regions, the names of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean once used, will cease to be used again.

    Destruction Caused by Cyclones:

    • Strong Winds/Squall: Cyclones cause infrastructure damage through high-speed winds.
    • Torrential Rains and Inland Flooding: Heavy rainfall leads to floods, soil erosion, and embankment weakening.
    • Storm Surge: Abnormal sea level rise inundates coastal regions, causing floods, erosion, and destruction.

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the South Atlantic and South Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the main reason behind this?

    (a) Sea Surface temperature are low

    (b) Inter Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs

    (c) Coriolis force is too weak

    (d) Absence of land in those regions

  • Speculoos-3b: A New Earth-Sized Exoplanet Discovered

    Why in the News?

    • Astronomers have identified a new Earth-sized exoplanet, named Speculoos-3b, orbiting an ultracool red dwarf star.

    Back2Basics: Red Dwarf Star

    • A red dwarf is the most common type of star in the Milky Way galaxy.
    • However, due to their low luminosity, individual red dwarfs cannot be easily observed.
    • Proxima Centauri, the star nearest to the Sun, is a red dwarf, as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars.
    • According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the fusing stars in the Milky Way.

    About Speculoos-3b

    • Speculoos-3b is an Earth-sized exoplanet recently discovered orbiting an ultracool dwarf star.
    • It was discovered by a team of astronomers led by Michael Gillon from the University of Liege in Belgium.
    • It is located approximately 55 light-years away from Earth.
    • Due to its short orbital period, Speculoos-3b receives almost ten times more energy per second than Earth does from the Sun.

    SPECULOOS Project 

    • Project Overview: The discovery was made under the SPECULOOS project, aimed at exploring exoplanets around ultra-cool dwarf stars.
    • The SPECULOOS Southern Observatory is a project carried out by the University of Liège (Belgium) and the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge (United Kingdom)

    Astrophysical Significance of the Discovery

    • Prevalence of Ultracool Dwarfs: Ultracool dwarf stars, like the host of Speculoos-3b, constitute about 70% of all stars in our galaxy and are known for their longevity, surviving up to 100 billion years.
    • Importance for Life’s Potential: The extended lifespan of these stars provides a stable environment that could potentially support the development of life on orbiting planets.

    PYQ:

    [2015] The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of:

    (a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth

    (b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available

    (c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space

    (d) search for meteorites containing precious metals

  • In News: Mahi River 

    Why in the News?

    Incidences of people drowning down into the Mahi River have become more frequent.

    About Mahi River

    • The Mahi River originates in the Vindhya Range of Madhya Pradesh (hot semi-arid and watershed region), near Dhar.
    • It flows northward through Madhya Pradesh before turning westward upon entering Rajasthan. It then moves southwest, passing through Gujarat, and eventually empties into the Arabian Sea.
    • The river stretches for about 580 kilometers.
      • Soil Type: The Mahi River Basin consists of Deep Black soil (southern region) and Alluvial soil (northern region).
      • Major Tributaries: the Som, the Anas, the Panam, and the Goma.
      • Major Dams: Kadana Dam and the Mahi Bajaj Sagar (Banswara) Dam are significant hydroelectric and irrigation projects on the Mahi River.
      • Biodiversity: Supports diverse flora and fauna, including endangered species like the Indian Skimmer and Gharial.

    Key Features:

    • It is surrounded by the Aravalli Hills to the north and northwest, the Malwa Plateau to the east, the Vindhyas to the south, and the Gulf of Khambhat to the west.
    • One of the most notable features of the Mahi River is its crossing of the Tropic of Cancer twice; once in Madhya Pradesh and again near the Gujarat-Rajasthan border.

    PYQ:

    [2017] With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements:

    1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim.

    2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta.

    3. River Teesta falls into Bay of Bengal at the border of India and Bangladesh.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    With inputs from: https://indiawris.gov.in/downloads/Mahi%20Basin.pdf