Subject: Modern History

Central Idea

• October 2 is a day of double celebration as India remembers the birth anniversaries of two iconic leaders: Mahatma Gandhi, the ‘Father of the Nation,’ and Lal Bahadur Shastri, former Prime Minister.
• Both leaders made significant contributions to India’s freedom struggle and early years of nation-building.

Lal Bahadur Shastri: A Man of Humble Origins

[A] Rising from Modest Beginnings

• Early Struggles: Born in 1904 in Mughalsarai, Uttar Pradesh, Shastri faced adversity early in life, with his father passing away shortly after his birth.
• Simplicity: Raised in a lower-middle-class environment, he possessed only two kurtas and dhotis, symbolizing his humble beginnings.
• A Change of Name: In a demonstration of his early social consciousness, Shastri dropped his birthname “Varma.” In 1925, he acquired the title of ‘Shastri’ (one who knows the Shastras) from the Kashi Vidyapeeth in Benaras, adding it to his name.

[B] Resignation and Accountability

• A Serious Accident: While serving as the Union Minister for Railways and Transport in 1956, a tragic railway accident in Telangana resulted in the loss of 112 lives.
• Owning Responsibility: Deeply affected by the tragedy, Shastri took moral responsibility and tendered his resignation to Prime Minister Nehru. Although Nehru initially did not accept it, Shastri resigned again after another railway accident in Tamil Nadu in November 1956, further solidifying his moral stature.

[C] Championing the Slogan ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan’

• A Return to Cabinet: Shastri made a comeback to the Union Cabinet, serving in roles such as Home Minister and Commerce and Industry Minister.
• Language Assurance: In response to concerns about Hindi domination, he assured the continued use of English as an official language alongside Hindi.
• Economic Challenges: In 1965, faced with economic stagnation and growing food demand, Shastri called upon farmers to increase production, traders to maintain fair prices, and consumers to exercise restraint. He coined the famous slogan, ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan (Hail the soldier, hail the farmer!).’

[D] Leadership during the 1965 India-Pakistan War and Tashkent Agreement

• Unforeseen Conflict: The 1965 war with Pakistan erupted as Pakistan launched attacks in Jammu and Kashmir, believing India to be vulnerable after the 1962 war with China.
• Firm Response: Shastri approved an Indian counterattack, leading to hostilities on both sides.
• Tashkent Declaration: Soviet Premier Aleksey Kosygin invited Shastri and Pakistan President General Ayub Khan to Tashkent, Uzbekistan, where they signed the Tashkent Declaration on January 10, 1966, committing to long-term peace.
• Sudden Passing: Tragically, Shastri passed away due to a heart attack the following day in Tashkent, leaving behind speculation about the circumstances. However, available evidence suggests it was a natural death, dispelling doubts of external factors.

Central Idea

• Bhagat Singh, born on September 28, 1907, in the village of Banga (now in Faisalabad, Pakistan), is celebrated as a charismatic revolutionary who sacrificed his life for the cause of Indian independence at the young age of 23.

Five Lesser-Known Aspects of Bhagat Singh’s Life

[1] A Family of Progressive Freedom Fighters

• Anti-Colonial Roots: Bhagat Singh’s father, Kishan, and uncle, Ajit, were actively involved in anti-British activities. Kishan faced imprisonment in 1910 for disseminating seditious literature, while Ajit was deported to Mandalay in 1907 for his inflammatory speeches against the Punjab Colonisation Bill. Both played significant roles in the freedom struggle, influencing Bhagat Singh’s upbringing in an anti-colonial environment.
• Dissent within the Family: Despite the family’s strong anti-British stance, Bhagat Singh publicly criticized his father for submitting a mercy plea to the Viceroy when he and other revolutionaries faced the gallows, revealing his unwavering commitment to the revolutionary cause.

[2] A Scholar and Writer

• Prolific Writer: Bhagat Singh contributed to Urdu and Punjabi newspapers in Amritsar during the 1920s and authored pamphlets and ‘seditious’ literature condemning British colonial rule.
• Eclectic Reading: His jail notebooks revealed his interests extended beyond politics, encompassing literature from renowned poets and writers, including Rabindranath Tagore, William Wordsworth, Wajid Ali Shah, Mirza Ghalib, and Iqbal.

[3] An Atheist and Marxist with Anarchist Leanings

• Religious Critique: Bhagat Singh was an avowed atheist who criticized religion in his essay ‘Why I am an Atheist’ (1930), rejecting the concept of one true religion. He viewed religious beliefs as divisive and demoralizing.
• Inspirations: Bhagat Singh drew inspiration from Marxist thinkers such as Marx, Lenin, Trotsky, and Bakunin. In his final testament, ‘To Young Political Workers’ (1931), he advocated for “social reconstruction on new, i.e., Marxist, basis.” However, he did not fully align with orthodox Marxist views, particularly on authoritarianism.

[4] Support from Jinnah

• Jinnah’s Defense: While Mahatma Gandhi refrained from intervening in Bhagat Singh’s trial, MA Jinnah ardently defended him. Jinnah vehemently opposed a proposed Bill that would have allowed trials in absentia, delivering a compelling speech in the Central Assembly in 1929.
• Successful Opposition: Jinnah’s staunch stance led to the foiling of the attempt to pass the law, but Bhagat Singh’s trial continued under dubious circumstances, resulting in his death sentence in 1930.

[5] Jawaharlal Nehru’s Support

• Nehru’s Critique: Jawaharlal Nehru criticized the British legal process and the injustice inflicted on Bhagat Singh. He admired Bhagat Singh’s courage and self-sacrifice.
• Historic Visit: Nehru, along with other leaders like Subhash Chandra Bose, visited Bhagat Singh in prison. Despite their differences in methods, Nehru’s respect for Bhagat Singh remained unwavering.
• Congress Resolution: After Bhagat Singh’s execution, Nehru moved an official resolution in a Congress session, condemning the execution and demanding commutation, even though the Congress officially rejected violence as a means of achieving independence.

Central Idea

• Mahatma Gandhi used fasting as a potent tool to press for change during India’s struggle for independence.
• He employed it both as a form of personal penance and as a means to pressure the British authorities to meet his demands.

The Gandhi-Ambedkar Debate

• The 1932 Turning Point: In September 1932, within the walls of the Yerawada Central Jail in Pune, Gandhi initiated a hunger strike against the idea of separate electorates for the harijans (lower castes). This action brought him into a fierce debate with another prominent leader, B.R. Ambedkar.
• The Debate’s Legacy: The “Gandhi-Ambedkar debate” revolved around their differing views on caste and ultimately influenced the reservation system that India has today.

Gandhi’s Changing Views on Caste

• Early Beliefs: In his early years, Gandhi held orthodox views on caste, supporting prohibitions on inter-dining and inter-marriage. He considered caste a crucial part of Hinduism.
• Evolution of Beliefs: As Gandhi became a central figure in India’s freedom movement, his views evolved. Partially influenced by the emerging Dalit movement, he advocated unity and opposed untouchability, referring to untouchables as “harijans” or children of God.
• Important Quote: Gandhi wrote in 1936, “I do know that it [untouchability] is harmful both to spiritual and national good.”

Ambedkar’s Radical Views on Caste

• Ambedkar’s Perspective: B.R. Ambedkar’s stance was more radical than Gandhi’s. He believed that mere reform wouldn’t undo centuries of discrimination. He argued that change would only come when the oppressed themselves rejected their condition, including the divine authority of the shastras (holy scriptures) that upheld caste.
• Political Empowerment: Ambedkar emphasized that political power was essential for lower castes to address their grievances and proposed separate electorates as a form of affirmative action.
• Separate Electorates Explained: Ambedkar’s proposal involved separate electorates for lower castes, allowing them to vote for candidates from their own community as well as in the general electorate. He believed this would empower lower castes.

Gandhi’s Opposition to Separate Electorates

• Gandhi’s Perspective: Gandhi opposed separate electorates, arguing that they did too little for lower castes. He believed that lower castes should aspire to lead, not settle for a small share of seats.
• Concerns: Gandhi feared that separate electorates would divide Hindu society further and play into the hands of British colonial rulers who exploited internal divisions.
• Challenging Times: The rising tensions between Hindus and Muslims at the time also fueled Gandhi’s concerns. Separate electorates for lower castes alongside those for Muslims would weaken the unity of the Hindu community.

The Yerawada Fast and the Poona Pact

• Gandhi’s Hunger Strike: In September 1932, Gandhi embarked on a hunger strike in Yerawada Jail against separate electorates for castes. He called it a “God-given opportunity” to sacrifice his life for the downtrodden.
• Ambedkar’s Dilemma: Ambedkar faced a challenging decision. Giving in to Gandhi’s demands was difficult, as it conflicted with his own ideas. However, Gandhi’s immense popularity and the potential for violence against Dalits pressured him.
• The Poona Pact: Eventually, under duress, Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact, securing reservations for lower castes while putting the idea of separate electorates to rest.

Legacy of the Fast

• Mixed Perspectives: Gandhi’s fast is seen by some as preventing British “divide and rule” tactics. Others view it as coercion, as Ambedkar had little choice but to concede. Ambedkar questioned why Gandhi didn’t fast against untouchability itself.
• Unresolved Tensions: The debate’s legacy endures. While the Poona Pact addressed immediate concerns, it left lingering issues of political representation and social transformation within India’s caste system.
• Ambedkar’s View: Ambedkar later wrote, “The Joint Electorate is… a ‘Rotten Borough’ in which the Hindus get the right to nominate an untouchable to set nominally as a representative of the untouchables but really as a tool of the Hindus.”

Central Idea

• September 13, 2023, marks the 75th anniversary of Operation Polo, a significant military action undertaken by the Indian Army in 1948 to integrate the princely state of Hyderabad.
• This operation, also known as the “Police Action,” led to the Nizam of Hyderabad’s forces surrendering to the Indian Army by September 18, 1948.
• Understanding the background and events surrounding Operation Polo is essential to appreciate its historical significance.

Context of Operation Polo

(1) The Nizam’s Stand:

• The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Shah, was reluctant to join India or Pakistan after India’s Independence in 1947.
• He exploited the diversion of Indian resources towards the Kashmir conflict, signing a standstill agreement with India in November 1947, maintaining the status quo in Hyderabad.

(2) Growing Tensions:

• Hyderabad, a populous and prosperous state in the Deccan, was predominantly Hindu but administered by Muslim rulers.
• The state had no common border with Pakistan, yet the Nizam sought amicable relations with Pakistan.
• The Nizam’s forces, especially the Razakars, escalated tensions with their actions, including cross-border raids and overtures to Pakistan.

The Military Campaign: Operation Polo

(1) Hyderabad’s Forces and Situation:

• Hyderabad’s military consisted of approximately 25,000 troops, with limited training and readiness.
• The Razakars, though numerous, posed a minor military challenge.

(2) Indian Army’s Leadership:

• Major General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, the General Officer Commanding of 1 Armoured Division, led the Indian forces.

(3) Multi-Directional Offensive:

• The primary assault came from the west, led by 1 Armoured Division, supported by forces from the north, south, and east.
• Key elements included the Smash Force, Kill Force, and Vir Force in the western thrust.
• Additional thrusts were launched from Aurangabad, Jabalpur, and the eastern front.
• The southern thrust originated from Vijayawada.

Conclusion: Surrender and Significance

(1) Ceasefire and Surrender:

• The Nizam announced a ceasefire on September 17, 1948.
• On September 18, Major General Chaudhuri entered Hyderabad, and Major General El Edroos surrendered to him.
• Major General Chaudhuri was subsequently appointed as the Military Governor of Hyderabad.

(2) Honoring a Hero:

• Havildar Bachhitar Singh of 2 Sikh was posthumously awarded the first Ashoka Chakra of Independent India for his role in Operation Polo.
• He sacrificed his life on September 13, 1948, while advancing towards Naldurg, a part of Hyderabad state.

Central Idea

• A recent collaborative effort of professional geneticists has resulted in a scientific confirmation of the Ajnala massacre – an event lost to history for 165 years.
• This project, marked by emotional intensity and rigorous analysis, brought long-lost victims to light through molecular and isotope data.

Ajnala Massacre

• Buried Tragedy: 282 soldiers of the 26th Native Bengal Infantry Regiment met a brutal fate during the 1857 uprising, drowned in a well by the British East India Company.
• Discovery of Location: Cooper’s book provided clues that helped locate the 1857 Kallianwala Martyrs’ Well beneath the Gurdwara Singh Sabha in Ajnala.
• Chance Encounter: In 2003, historian Surinder Kochhar found a reference to ‘Ajnala’ in a discarded book titled “Crisis in Punjab” by Frederick Henry Cooper.
• Massacre Rediscovered: Kochhar’s research led to the revelation of the Ajnala Massacre, a grim incident hidden for over 157 years.

Excavation and Revelation

• Unveiling the Remains: The well was excavated in 2014, exposing the skeletal remains of the soldiers.
• Gruesome Discovery:  During the 1857 Sepoy mutiny, many Indian soldiers revolted against the British. Around 500 revolted at Mian Mir Cantonment in Lahore.
• Evading execution: They swam across the Ravi River to reach the town of Ajnala, now in Amritsar district. Of them, 218 were killed by British soldiers at Dadian Sofian village near Ajnala.
• Dumped into a well: The remaining 282 were stuffed in a small room, where many died of asphyxiation. The rest were shot dead and their bodies were thrown into a well, which was later named “Kalianwala Khu” and “Shaheedan da Khu”.

Verification and Acknowledgment

• Scientific Verification: DNA-based evidence confirmed that the remains belonged to soldiers of the 26th Native Bengal Infantry regiment.
• Historical Importance: The Ajnala Massacre adds to the narrative of the 1857 Indian uprising against the British East India Company’s oppression.

Conclusion

• The Ajnala Massacre underscores the often-overlooked brutalities of the 1857 Indian uprising.
• The lack of acknowledgement and memorials can be attributed to the government’s hesitance to address uncomfortable aspects of history.

Central Idea

• On the 114th anniversary of his execution, a memorial is being formally inaugurated in honour of Madan Lal Dhingra.

Who was Madan Lal Dhingra?

• Early Life: Born on September 18, 1883, in an affluent family in Amritsar, Dhingra’s father was a staunch British loyalist, working as a chief medical officer.
• Shift towards Nationalism: Dhingra’s exposure to the nationalist movement in Lahore during his studies ignited his patriotism.
• Socio-Economic Concerns: Driven by a sense of justice and concern for India’s impoverished masses, Dhingra’s patriotism extended to socio-economic issues.
• Expulsion and Resilience: Expelled from college for protesting against the use of British-imported cloth, Dhingra’s defiance marked his commitment to the cause.

Involvement in Revolutionary Circles

• Contact with Leaders: Dhingra connected with prominent figures like Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Shyamji Krishna Varma, active in London’s revolutionary circles.
• India House: Dhingra frequented India House, a hub for revolutionary Indian nationalism founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma, further igniting his revolutionary spirit.
• Abhinav Bharat Mandal: Dhingra joined Abhinav Bharat Mandal founded by Vinayak Savarkar, where he refined his plan to assassinate Curzon Wyllie.

Assassination of Curzon Wyllie

• Curzon Wyllie’s Profile: Curzon Wyllie was a British Indian officer and intelligence officer known for collecting information on revolutionaries.
• The Assassination: On July 1, 1909, Dhingra attended an event where Curzon Wyllie was present. Dhingra fired five shots, fatally hitting both Curzon Wyllie and a doctor who tried to intervene.
• Dhingra’s Justification: During his trial, Dhingra argued that if fighting Germans was patriotic for an Englishman, fighting the British was even more justifiable for him.

Legacy and Memorial

• Execution and Burial: Dhingra was found guilty, executed on August 17, 1909, and buried in London. His remains were brought to India in 1976.
• Struggle for a Memorial: A memorial in Dhingra’s name has been a long-standing demand. The efforts culminated in the formal inauguration of the memorial on the 114th anniversary of his execution.
• Memorial Inauguration: The memorial was inaugurated by Governor Banwari Lal Purohit on August 17, 2023, in Amritsar’s Golbagh area.
• Memorial’s Significance: The memorial stands as a tribute to Dhingra’s sacrifice and his role in the fight for India’s freedom.