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Subject: Modern History

  • PM inaugurates Nalanda University  

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister has inaugurated the new campus of Nalanda University, an international institution located near the ancient ruins of Nalanda in Rajgir, Bihar.

    Revival of Nalanda University

    • The idea to revive Nalanda University was proposed by former president Dr APJ Abdul Kalam in 2006, leading to the passing of the Nalanda University Bill in 2010.
    • The university’s revival was operationally launched in 2014 from a temporary location.
    • Former president Pranab Mukherjee laid the foundation stone for the permanent campus in 2016, with construction starting in 2017 and culminating in today’s inauguration.
    • The Parliament established the university following decisions from the second East Asia Summit (EAS) in 2007 and the fourth EAS in 2009.

    International Collaboration and Courses

    • Nalanda University has participation from 17 countries, including Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Indonesia, and others, which have signed MoUs to support the university.
    • It offers 137 scholarships to international students, sponsored by the ASEAN-India Fund, BIMSTEC, and Bhutan’s Ministry of External Affairs.
    • The university provides postgraduate and doctoral research courses, as well as short-term certificate courses.

    Historical Background

    • Nalanda University was established in the 5th century CE in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern-day Bihar) and was the world’s first residential university.
    • Establishment and Patronage:
      • The Gupta dynasty, under Emperor Kumaragupta I, established Nalanda University in 427 AD, promoting it as a premier center for Buddhist scholarship.
      • It received substantial endowments from monarchs like King Harsha and rulers of the Pala Empire, enhancing its stature and influence across Asia.
    • Countries: It attracted scholars from China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.
    • Subjects taught included medicine, Ayurveda, Buddhism, mathematics, grammar, astronomy, and Indian philosophy.
    • The university thrived under the patronage of the Pala dynasty during the 8th and 9th centuries CE and made significant contributions to mathematics and astronomy.
    • Aryabhatta, a pioneer of Indian mathematics and the inventor of zero, was one of the esteemed educators at Nalanda.

    Admission and Academic Rigor

    • Admission to Nalanda was highly competitive, akin to today’s top institutions like IIT, IIM, or Ivy League schools.
    • Students underwent rigorous interviews and were mentored by scholars and Buddhist masters like Dharmapala and Silabhadra.
    • The university’s library, known as ‘Dharma Gunj’ or the ‘Mountain of Truth,’ contained 9 million handwritten palm-leaf manuscripts, making it the richest repository of Buddhist knowledge.

    Destruction and Rediscovery

    • In the 1190s, Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turko-Afghan military general, destroyed Nalanda University by arson, which burned for three months and destroyed invaluable Buddhist manuscripts.
    • Some surviving manuscripts are preserved in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Yarlung Museum in Tibet.
    • The university was rediscovered in 1812 by Scottish surveyor Francis Buchanan-Hamilton and officially identified in 1861 by Sir Alexander Cunningham.

    Scholarly Influence

    • Nalanda’s intellectual legacy includes contributions from scholars like Nagarjuna, known for his foundational work in the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, and his disciple Aryadeva.
    • Dharmapala’s commentaries further enriched Buddhist philosophy.
    • These scholars’ insights into metaphysics and epistemology extended Nalanda’s influence, shaping religious and philosophical thought across Asia and inspiring subsequent generations of thinkers.

    Foreign Travellers Account of Nalanda University 

    Visit Period Key Details
    Xuanzang 7th century CE
    • Described Nalanda as vast with lecture halls and residential quarters.
    • Noted a large library with thousands of manuscripts.
    • Mentioned numerous teachers and students engaged in debates.
    • Provided detailed records of Nalanda’s organization and academic activities.
    I-Tsing 7th century CE
    • Spent several years studying at Nalanda.
    • Emphasized rigorous academic environment.
    • Noted diverse student population from Asia.
    • Contributed to understanding Nalanda’s curriculum and scholarly environment.
    Al-Biruni 11th century CE
    • Wrote about Nalanda’s reputation as a premier center of learning in India.
    • Highlighted its attraction for scholars across Asia.
    • Introduced Nalanda’s achievements to the medieval Islamic world.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate.

    [2018] Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction of the history of India.

    [2014] Taxila university was one of the oldest universities of the world with which were associated a number of renowned learned personalities of different disciplines. Its strategic location caused its fame to flourish, but unlike Nalanda, it is not considered as a university in the modern sense. Discuss.

  • 124th Death Anniversary of Birsa Munda

    Why in the News?

    Jharkhand CM marked the 124th death anniversary of revolutionary tribal leader “Birsa Munda” by paying his tributes.

    Who was Birsa Munda (1875-1900)?

    • Birsa Munda was born on November 15, 1875, during a period of significant change for his community, the Mundas, residing in the Chotanagpur region of present-day Jharkhand.
    • Birsa Munda spent his early years travelling with his parents and received primary education under Jaipal Nag.
    • Inspired by the peaceful Sardari agitation against British rule, Birsa became a prominent leader advocating for tribal rights.

    Causes of the Rebellion

    • Impact of Colonial Policies: Colonial policies, including the Permanent Settlement Act (1793), disrupted traditional land ownership systems, leading to displacement and exploitation of indigenous communities.
    • Erosion of Khuntkattidar System: The Mundas’ traditional land rights system, known as khuntkatti, was eroded by jagirdars and thikadars, leading to land alienation.
    • Land Alienation and Exploitation: Non-tribal migration into tribal regions accelerated under British rule, resulting in exploitation through high-interest money lending and forced labour.
    • Missionary Activity: The spread of education through missionary activities led to increased awareness among tribals, deepening social cleavages but also inspiring movements for tribal reconstruction.

    Major Activities:

    1. New faith ‘Birsait’ against religious conversion

    • Having gained awareness of the British colonial ruler and the efforts of the missionaries to convert tribals to Christianity, Birsa started the faith of ‘Birsait’.
    • Soon members of the Munda and Oraon community started joining the Birsait sect and it turned into a challenge to British conversion activities.
    • The Mundas called him Dharati Aaba, the father of earth.

    2. The Birsa Movement: Ulgulan

    • The Munda Rebellion was a tribal rebellion led by Birsa Munda in the region south of Ranchi in 1899-1900.
    • It mainly concentrated in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar, Sarwada, and Bandgaon.
    • The revolt sought to establish Munda Raj and independence, known as Ulgulan or ‘Great Tumult’ by Munda tribals.
    • The rebellion ended with the suppression by British forces and the death of Birsa Munda.

    Significant Outcomes

    • Impact: Birsa Munda’s mobilization of tribal communities left a lasting legacy, prompting government reforms such as the repeal of the Begar system and the enactment of the Tenancy Act (1903).
    • His Death: The movement was violently suppressed and Birsa Munda died in jail on 9 June 1900.

    What is Permanent Settlement System?

    • The Permanent Settlement system introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 was a land revenue system implemented in British India, particularly in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
    • Under this system, the land revenue to be paid by the peasants (ryots) was fixed permanently without revision for an extended period (typically 10 years or more).
    • This fixed amount was based on the estimated productive capacity of the land.
    • It established the Zamindari system, where Zamindars (landlords) were recognized as the owners of land.
    • They were responsible for collecting revenue from the peasants and paying it to the British government.
    • In return, they were entitled to keep a portion of the collected revenue as their income, often ranging from 10% to 15%.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events?

    (a) The Revolt of 1857

    (b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921

    (c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60

    (d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900

  • Was the Stone Age actually the Age of Wood?

    Why in the News?

    New research suggests the Stone Age be termed the “Wood Age” due to advanced wooden tools found in Schoningen, Germany.

    About Schoningen Wooden Artefacts

    • A study of around 300,000-400,000-year-old wooden artefacts excavated from a coal mine in Schoningen, Germany, between 1994 and 2008.
    • It reveals that these were not merely “sharpened sticks” but “technologically advanced tools” requiring skill, precision, and time to build.
    • The tools demonstrated a broad spectrum of wood-working techniques including splitting, scraping or abrasion.

    Back2Basics: Periodising Human Prehistory

    • Prehistory vs. History: Human ‘history’ began with the advent of writing, while everything before that is ‘prehistory,’ studied using archaeological evidence and ethnographic research.
    • 19th Century Periodization: Danish archaeologist Christian Jorgensen Thomsen introduced the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age classification based on technological advancements. This classification has been refined to reflect diverse cultural experiences.

    The Stone Age Timeline

    • Beginning: The Stone Age began when hominids first used stone tools, around 3.4 million years ago in Ethiopia, and lasted until about 6,000-4,000 BP (Before Present).
    • Divisions: The Stone Age is divided into:
    1. Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): Characterized by rudimentary stone tools and a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, ending around 11,650 BP.
    2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): A transitional phase.
    3. Neolithic (New Stone Age): Beginning roughly 12,000 BP in West Asia, marked by settled agriculture and domestication of animals.

    Use of Wood: Preservation Bias and Archaeological Evidence

    • Stone Tools: Stone tools provide significant insight into the lives and capabilities of early humans. Charles Darwin noted that even the rudest stone tools required a high degree of mental sophistication and physical dexterity.
    • Other Materials: Evidence shows the use of bones, antlers, clay, and some metalworking alongside stone tools. However, evidence of woodworking is limited due to wood’s perishable nature.
    • Lesser Evidence of Wood: Wood has been recovered from less than 10 of thousands of Lower Palaeolithic sites (up to around 200,000 BP). The earliest wooden dwellings date to only 700,000 BP, much later than the earliest stone tools.

    PYQ:

    [2021] With reference to the period of the Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul were well-known as

    (a) ports handling foreign trade

    (b) capitals of powerful kingdoms

    (c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture

    (d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres

  • [pib] Rabindranath Tagore and his legacy

    Why in the news?

    The Conservation and Cultural Archives Division of Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) hosted an exhibition and lecture celebrating Rabindranath Tagore’s birth anniversary in New Delhi.

    Tagore’s Journey to France

    • Tagore had visited the battlefields of the First World War, highlighting his deep humanity.
    • The narrative includes mentions of Alexandra David Neel, who recommended Tagore during his European tours, and Victoria Ocampo, who taught French to Tagore, enhancing his connection with French culture and intellectual society.

    About Rabindranath Tagore

    Details
    Birth and Early Life – Born on May 7, 1861, in Calcutta, India.
    Literary Career – Published his first poems at age 16 under the pen-name ‘Bhanusimha’.

    – Key works include “Gitanjali“, “Ghare-Baire“, “Gora“, and “Manasi“.
    Music and Art – Composed over 2,000 songs known as ‘Rabindra Sangeet’.

    – Our National Anthem was composed by him and it was first sung on 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta Session of INC.

    – Created more than 2,000 paintings, influenced by European expressionism.
    Education – Founded Visva-Bharati University in 1921, integrating Eastern and Western philosophies.
    Political Views – He is said to have given the title of ‘Mahatma’ to Mohandas

    – Renounced his ‘Knighthood’ (awarded to him in 1915 by the British King George V) in 1919 following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
    Cultural Influence – Wrote the National Anthems of India (“Jana Gana Mana”) and Bangladesh (“Amar Sonar Bangla”).

    – Inspired the national anthem of Sri Lanka through a student.
    Awards and Recognition – Awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for “Gitanjali“, the first non-European to win.

    – Awarded, and later renounced, a knighthood by British King George V in 1915.
    Philosophical Contributions – Advocated for the incorporation of the best aspects of Western culture with Indian culture to achieve anti-colonialism.
    Death – Passed away on August 7, 1941, in Calcutta.
    Legacy – Revered as ‘Gurudev’, ‘Kabiguru’, and ‘Biswakabi’. Highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the West and reshaping Bengali literature and music.
    Additional Contributions – Advocated for ‘Unity in Diversity’ and ‘National Integration’.

    – Spoke at the World Parliament of Religions, Chicago in 1929 and 1937.

    – Modernized Bengali prose and poetry, remembered for songs like ‘Ekla Chalo Re’ and his environmental efforts at Santiniketan.

    About Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)

    • The IGNCA, New Delhi is a premier government-funded arts organisation in India.
    • It is an autonomous institute under the Union Ministry of Culture.
    • It was established on 19 November 1985 by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.
    • IGNCA is envisioned as a centre for the study and experience of arts in the field of:
    1. Creative literature – written and oral;
    2. Visual arts inclusive of architecture;
    3. Sculpture, painting and graphics to general material culture, photography and film; and
    4. Performing arts of music, dance and theatre.

    PYQ:

    [2019] Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century’s Indian Renaissance and the emergence of national identity.

    [2021] Who among the following was associated as Secretary with Hindu Female School, later known as Bethune Female School?​

    (a) Annie Besant

    (b) Debendranath Tagore

    (c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

    (d) Sarojini Naidu

  • Patachitra Scroll Paintings

    Why in the news?

    Patachitra Paintings of women in Paschim Medinipur’s Pingla block in West Bengal has become popular worldwide.

    About Bengal Patachitra

    • Patachitra, also spelled as Pattachitra, is a traditional form of scroll painting that originated in the eastern Indian states of Odisha and West Bengal, as well as parts of Bangladesh. The term “Patachitra” derives from Sanskrit, where “pata” means “cloth” and “chitra” means “picture.”
    • These paintings are typically created on cloth canvas, palm leaves, or paper. Artists associated with Patachitra are known as Patuas.
    • Origin: Bengal Patachitra is believed to have originated in rural Bengal, with some historical references suggesting its existence during the Pre-Pala period.
    • Themes and Style:
      • The themes of Bengal Patachitra are diverse, ranging from religious and mythological narratives to secular subjects.
      • Religious themes often depict stories from Hindu epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as folklore such as Manasha and Chandi.
      • Secular themes include important news events, accidents, scandals, and social issues.
      • Each Patachitra is accompanied by a song called Patua Sangeet, sung by the artists while unfurling the scroll.
    • Aspects of Painting:
      • Chalchitra: Background paintings associated with religious idols, such as Durga Pratima.
      • Durga Pot: Special Patachitras worshiped during Durga Puja, often featuring images of gods and goddesses.
      • Various Technique: Different districts have distinct techniques, colors, and designs. For example, Purulia Patachitras prefer burnt sienna with white and yellow patches, while Hooghly and Manbhum scrolls exhibit modernistic abstract linear treatment.
      • Artists: Bengal Patua artists, also known as Chitrakars, are concentrated in villages like Naya in the Medinipur district.
      • Colors: Bengal Patachitra typically uses natural colors derived from materials like chalk dust (for white), pauri (for yellow), cultivated indigo (for blue), bhushakali (for black), and mete sindur (for red).

  • Scripting a new tribal identity

    Why in the news? 

    President of India Droupadi Murmu was being presented a book, Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle, at a National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) event.

    Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle

    • Santhal Revolution: Led by Buddhu Bhagat, Joa Bhagat, and Madara Mahato, the Santhal Revolution was a significant tribal uprising against British colonial rule in 1855. The Kols were joined by other tribes like the Hos, Mundas, and Oraons in this struggle
    • Paika Rebellion: The Paika Rebellion in 1817 was a tribal uprising against the British in Odisha. The Paikas were a warrior class who were fighting for their rights and against the exploitation by the British
    • Kol Revolt: The Kol Revolt of 1831-32 was a tribal uprising against the British in Chhattisgarh. The Kols were fighting for their rights over the land and against the exploitation by the British
    • Birsa Munda: Birsa Munda was a tribal leader from Jharkhand who led the Millenarian Movement against the British in the late 19th century. He mobilized the tribal community against the British and forced them to introduce laws protecting the land rights of tribals
    • Rani Gaidinliu: Rani Gaidinliu was a tribal leader from Nagaland who led a revolt against the British in the early 20th century. She was a spiritual leader who fought for the rights of the Nagas and against the exploitation by the British
    • Laxman Naik: Laxman Naik was a tribal leader from Odisha who led a revolt against the British in the early 20th century. He was a farmer who fought for the rights of the farmers and against the exploitation by the British

    Impact of Tribal Revolts during Freedom Struggle: 

    • The tribal revolts during the freedom struggle contributed to the very beginning of the aggression for British Raj. They revolted not against the British but their policy for Indians which were imposed on them without even knowing their culture and its significance. Later this led to the revolt of 1857, which took attention of all over the country

    Conclusion: President Droupadi Murmu received the book “Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle” at an NCST event, highlighting significant uprisings like the Santhal, Paika, and Kol revolts, emphasizing tribal resistance against British exploitation, influencing broader Indian agitation.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their role in the Indian struggle for freedom.(UPSC IAS/2013)

  • Mahad Satyagraha: A Landmark Event in the Dalit Movement

    Why in the news?

    The Mahad Satyagraha is hailed as the foundational event of the Dalit movement, marking the community’s collective rejection of the caste system and assertion of human rights.

    About Mahad Satyagraha

    • The Mahad Satyagraha, also known as Chavdar Tale (Lake) Satyagraha, was led by B. R. Ambedkar on 20 March 1927 in Mahad, Raigad District of Maharashtra.
    • Its aim was to assert the right of untouchables to use water from a public tank.
    1. Background:
    • Untouchables (Dalits) were segregated in Indian society and banned from using public water bodies and roads used by other Hindu castes.
    • In August 1923, the Bombay Legislative Council passed a resolution allowing depressed classes to use government-maintained places, but it faced opposition from savarna Hindus.
    • In January 1924, Mahad passed a resolution in its municipal council to enforce the act but failed to implement it due to protests.
    1. Satyagraha:
    • In 1927, Ambedkar launched a satyagraha to assert untouchables’ rights to use water in public places.
    • Mahad was chosen for the event due to its support from ‘caste Hindus’.
    • Surendranath Tipnis, president of the Mahad municipality, invited Ambedkar to hold a meeting there.
    • Ambedkar drank water from the tank, followed by thousands of untouchables.
    • He encouraged Dalit women to abandon customs of untouchability and wear saris like high-caste women, which they embraced.
    • A riot erupted over rumors of Ambedkar planning to enter a Hindu temple, and the tank was purified with cow-urine and cow-dung.
    • Ambedkar planned a second conference in Mahad in December 1927 but faced legal obstacles due to a case filed by caste Hindus.
    • On 25 December 1937, the Bombay High Court ruled that untouchables have the right to use water from the tank.
    1. Legacy:
    • On 19 March 1940, Ambedkar arranged a rally in Mahad to commemorate the Satyagraha as “Empowerment Day.”

    Back2Basics: Key Initiatives and Movements Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

    Initiative Location Objective
    Temple Entry Movement (1920s-1930s) Various Locations Advocating for the right of Dalits to enter Hindu temples.
    Mahad Satyagraha (Chavdar Tale Satyagraha) Mahad, Maharashtra Asserting the rights of untouchables to use water from a public tank.
    Kalaram Mandir Movement (1930) Nashik, Maharashtra Demanding temple entry rights for Dalits at the Kalaram Mandir.
    Annihilation of Caste (1936) – Publication of “Annihilation of Caste,” advocating for the abolition of the caste system.
    Formation of Independent Dalit Political Party (Independent Labour Party) (1936) – Addressing the political concerns and aspirations of Dalits.
    Push for Separate Electorate by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1932) India Advocating for separate electorates for Dalits to ensure their political representation and empowerment.
    Legal Advocacy (1940s-1950s) – Drafting of the Hindu Code Bills, contribution to the framing of the Indian Constitution.
    Conversion to Buddhism (1956) Nagpur, Maharashtra Symbolizing a rejection of the caste system through mass conversion ceremony to Buddhism.

     

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which one of the following is a very significant aspect of the Champaran Satyagraha?

    (a) Active all-India participation of lawyers, students and women in the National Movement

    (b) Active involvement of Dalit and Tribal communities of India in the National Movement

    (c) Joining of peasant unrest to India’s National Movement

    (d) Drastic decrease in the cultivation of plantation crops and commercial crops

  • Anniversary of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

    Why in the news?

    On April 13, 1919, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered British troops to open fire on a peaceful gathering in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, leaving a deep scar on India’s collective memory.

    Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

    1. Background: Protesting the contentious Rowlatt Act
    • The act officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919 was passed in 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council.
    • It had authorized the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities.
    • It also authorized the government to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial.
    • It empowered the police to search a place without a warrant. It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press.
    • The primary intention of colonial govt. was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country.
    • The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite Revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country.
    1. The day
    • The massacre took place on 13 April 1919 when troops of the British Indian Army (Gurkha and Sikh infantry regiments) under the command of Col. Reginald Dyer fired rifles into a crowd of Indians.
    • The civilians had assembled for a peaceful protest to condemn the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
    • Dyer without warning ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well.
    • The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes which resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people.
    1. Aftermath
    • In protest against the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood.
    • Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa.
    • Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre.
    • The heroic treatment of Dyer’s heinous act again set a benchmark of colonial arrogance.

    Hunter Commission for Inquiry

    • In October 1919 the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, ordered the formation of a committee of inquiry into the events in Punjab.
    • Referred to as the Disorders Inquiry Committee, it was later more widely known as the Hunter Commission (Not to be confused with Hunter Education Commission).
    • The commission inquiry was concluded without any significant conclusion.
    • Still, there are long-standing demands in India that Britain should apologize for the massacre.

    PYQ:

    [2012] The Rowlatt Act aimed at:

    (a) Compulsory economic support to war efforts

    (b) Imprisonment without trial and summary procedures for trial

    (c) Suppression of the Khilafat Movement

    (d) Imposition of restrictions on freedom of the press

  • Insights from History: Coalition Governments in Colonial India

    Why in the news?

    • Prime Minister recently suggested a link between the Congress manifesto and the Muslim League (which is responsible for the Partition of India), prompting a political debate.
    • In rebuttal, critics reminded of a coalition governments formed by Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal, Sindh, and North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) in the 1940s with the Muslim League.

    Provincial Elections of 1937:

    [A] Indian National Congress

    • Congress performed admirably in the 1937 provincial elections, held under the mandate of the Government of India Act of 1935.
    • It won 711 of a total 1,585 provincial assembly seats, with absolute majorities in 5 of the 11 provinces (Madras, Bihar, Orissa, Central Provinces, and United Provinces) and a near-majority in Bombay (86 out of 175).
    • Congress ministries were formed in all of these provinces.
    • Sometime later, the Congress also formed governments in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Assam.

    [B] Non-Congress Parties

    • Non-Congress governments were formed in the remaining 3 provinces — Sindh, Punjab, and Bengal.
    • In Sindh, a coalition led by the Sind United Party formed the government; in Punjab, Sikandar Hayat Khan’s Unionist Party won a majority.
    • And in Bengal, Fazlul Huq’s Krishak Praja Party (KPP) formed a coalition government with the Muslim League— even though the Congress was the single largest party with 54 seats.

    [C] Religion based Parties

    • Notably, the Muslim League, which claimed to be the sole representative of Indian Muslims, performed abysmally in the elections.
    • The League won just 106 out of the 482 seats allotted to Muslims under separate electorates, and it failed to win even a single seat in the NWFP.
    • The Hindu Mahasabha, which had entered electoral politics in the 1930s under V D Savarkar’s leadership, too fared miserable.

    Ideological Alignment and Political Alliances

    • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar noted ideological similarities between the Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim League, both advocating for the two-nation theory.
    • This ideological convergence paved the way for short-lived political alliances, particularly during the turmoil following Congress’s resignation from provincial ministries in 1939.

    Reasons for such Alliance

    • Opposition to Quit India Movement:  When Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in 1942, the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha refrained from participating, opting to support the British war effort.
    • Support for British War Efforts: Savarkar, in a letter, instructed Mahasabha members to remain loyal to their positions and not join the movement, while Syama Prasad Mookerjee pledged support to suppress any internal disturbances.
    • Increased Push for Partition: Jinnah, meanwhile, intensified his campaign for Pakistan, capitalizing on the absence of Congress leaders and positioning himself as the sole spokesman for Muslims.

    Muslim League: 

    • The All India Muslim League was formed in 1906 in Dhaka, Bengal Presidency, British India.
    • It was established in response to the perceived marginalization and political underrepresentation of Muslims in the Indian National Congress.
    • The founding members of the Muslim League included prominent Muslim leaders such as Nawab Salimullah Khan of Dhaka, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, Aga Khan III, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who later emerged as its most influential leader.
    • The primary objective of the Muslim League was to safeguard the political rights and interests of Muslims in India.
    • It advocated for separate electorates for Muslims, reservations in government jobs and legislative bodies, and other measures to protect Muslim identity and interests.

    Hindu Mahasabha:

    •  The Hindu Mahasabha was founded in 1915 in Amritsar, Punjab, by Madan Mohan Malaviya and others.
    • It aimed to unite Hindus under one political umbrella and promote Hindu nationalism.
    • Besides Madan Mohan Malaviya, prominent leaders included Lala Lajpat Rai, B. S. Moonje, and Vinayak Damodar Savarkar.
    • It promoted the idea of Akhand Bharat (Undivided India) and opposed the partition of India on religious lines.

     Implications of this Coalition

    • The period following Congress’s participation in the Quit India Movement saw the rise of the Muslim League’s influence, with League ministries established in several provinces by 1943.
    • Jinnah’s strategy to capitalize on Congress’s absence contributed to his claim as the sole representative of Indian Muslims, furthering the demand for Pakistan.

    PYQ:

    [2018] In the Federation established by The Government of India Act of 1935, Residuary Power were given to the:

    (a) Federal Legislature

    (b) Governor General

    (c) Provincial Legislature

    (d) Provincial Governors

  • Mangal Pandey: A Revolutionary Icon of Indian Independence

    Why in the news?

    It was on April 8th 167 years ago in 1857, Mangal Pandey was hanged.

    Who was Mangal Pandey?

    • Mangal Pandey, born on July 19, 1827, in Nagwa village of the Ballia district in present-day Uttar Pradesh.
    • He belonged to the kingdom of Awadh, which had been treacherously annexed by the British in 1856.
    • At the age of 22, he enlisted as a soldier in the British East India Company’s army, joining the 34th Bengal Native Infantry.

    Recap of his revolutionary activities

    1. Annexation of Awadh
    • The Begums of Awadh had an understanding with the British, and had been abiding by the terms of the agreement.
    • In spite of this, Awadh was annexed, in February 1856, which was greatly resented by the people.
    • Awadh was a region that supplied large numbers of soldiers of war to the Company’s army.
    • There were 75,000 soldiers from Awadh, and almost every agricultural family in the kingdom had a representative in the army.
    • Whatever happened in Awadh was of immediate concern to the Sepoy.
    1. Rise of Resentment
    • The deposition of the Nawab and the confiscation of the villages of taluqdars during the land revenue settlement of 1856 caused outrage.
    • Some 14,000 petitions were received from the Sepoys about the hardships they faced on account of the revenue system.
    • Mangal Pandey represented the discontent that the misery of British rule had brought upon peasant families.
    1. Flashpoint and the mutiny
    • Mangal Pandey was stationed at Barrackpore, near Calcutta (now Kolkata), where he became involved in a significant event that would later be known as the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857.
    • He refused to use the newly introduced Enfield rifle, the cartridges of which had a covering that was believed to be made of animal fat (beef and pork), and which had to be bit open before the cartridges could be used.
    • This was viewed by the soldiers as a direct assault on their religious beliefs by the British who intended to bring an end to their religion and propagate Christianity.
    • On March 29, 1857, Pandey mutinied and fired at his Senior Sergeant Major.
    • He was overpowered and hanged on April 8, 1857, by the order of a Court Martial at Lal Bagan in Barrackpore.
    • His regiment was disbanded, like the 19th infantry at Behrampore, for showing resentment.

    PYQ:

    [2019] The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred in the preceding hundred years of British Rule. Elucidate.