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  • 2020 Millennium Technology Prize  

    The 2020 Millennium Technology Prize has been awarded to Shankar Balasubramanian and David Klenerman, for their development of revolutionary Next-generation DNA sequencing techniques.

    About Millennium Technology Prize

    • The Millennium Technology Prize is one of the world’s largest technology prizes.
    • It is awarded once every two years by Technology Academy Finland, an independent fund established by Finnish industry and the Finnish state in partnership.

    What is next-generation DNA sequencing?

    • Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is a massively parallel sequencing technology that offers ultra-high throughput, scalability, and speed.
    • The technology is used to determine the order of nucleotides in entire genomes or targeted regions of DNA or RNA.
    • These technologies allow for sequencing of DNA and RNA much more quickly and cheaply than the previously used sequencing.
    • NGS has revolutionized the biological sciences, allowing labs to perform a wide variety of applications and study biological systems at a level never before possible.
    • More than a million base pairs can be sequenced, which translates to hundreds of genes or even the whole genome of an organism.
    • This is made possible by simultaneously sequencing hundreds of pieces of DNA at the same time.

    What is sequencing, btw?

    • DNA (or RNA, in some viruses), the genetic material of life forms, is made of four bases (A, T, G and C; with U replacing T in the case of RNA).
    • A chromosome is the duplex of a long linear chain of these – and in the DNA sequence is information – the blueprint of life.
    • Life famously can replicate, and DNA replicates when an enzyme, DNA polymerase, synthesises a complementary strand using an existing DNA strand as the template.
    • The breakthrough idea of Balasubramanian and Klenerman was to sequence DNA (or RNA) using this process of strand synthesis.
    • They cleverly modified their ATGC bases so that each shone with a different colour.
    • When copied, the “coloured” copy of DNA could be deciphered from the colours alone, using miniature optical and electronic devices.

    What about the cost of all this sequencing?

    • When the Human Genome Project delivered the first, near-complete sequence of our genome, the cost was estimated to have been 3 billion dollars.
    • As all our chromosomes together have 3 billion base pairs, it becomes an easy calculation – One dollar per sequenced base.
    • By the year 2020, NGS technologies has pushed the price for sequencing to a few thousands of rupees.

    Back2Basics:

    What is the Human Genome Project?

  • Sikkim is home to 27% of India’s flowering plants

    Sikkim, the smallest State with less than 1% of India’s landmass, is home to 27% of all flowering plants found in the country, reveals a recent publication by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI).

    Flora of Sikkim

    • Flora of Sikkim – A Pictorial Guide lists 4,912 naturally occurring flowering plants in the tiny Himalayan State.
    • The total number of naturally occurring flowering plants in the country is about 18,004 species, and with 4,912 species, the diversity of flowering plants in Sikkim, spread over an area of 7,096 sq. km. is very unique.

    Why is Sikkim a host to such large biodiversity?

    • Sikkim is a part of the Kanchenjunga biosphere landscape, has different altitudinal ecosystems, which provide opportunities for herbs and trees to grow and thrive.
    • The State also borders China, Bhutan and Nepal, and the Darjeeling Hills of West Bengal.
    • From subalpine vegetation to the temperate to the tropical, the State has different kinds of vegetation, and that is the reason for such a diversity of flora.
    • The elevation also varies between 300 to 8,598 metres above mean sea level, the apex being the top of Mt. Kanchenjunga (8,586 metres).

    Contribution by the Public

    • The people of Sikkim have a unique bond with nature and trees.
    • As per the Sikkim Forest Tree (Amity & Reverence) Rules, 2017 the State government allows any person to associate with trees standing on his or her private land or on any public land by entering into a Mith/Mit or Mitini relationship.
    • The notification encouraged people to adopt a tree “as if it was his or her own child in which case the tree shall be called an adopted tree”.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.Which one of the following National Parks lies completely in the temperate alpine zone?

    (a) Manas National Park

    (b) Namdapha National Park

    (c) Neora Valley National Park

    (d) Valley of Flowers National Park

  • Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

    Fearing any surge in coronavirus cases in the national capital, which is witnessing a decline in cases of infection, the Delhi government has chalked out the ‘Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP).’

    Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

    • In 2014, when a study by the WHO found that Delhi was the most polluted city in the world, panic spread in the Centre and the state government.
    • Approved by the Supreme Court in 2016, the plan was formulated after several meetings that the Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) held with state government and experts.
    • The result was a plan that institutionalized measures to be taken when air quality deteriorates.
    • GRAP also works as an emergency measure.
    • It includes strict measures such as a ban on the entry of heavy vehicles, the odd-even road rationing restrictions, and a halt of construction work – each of which is likely to be impractical at a time when the pandemic has exacted heavy economic costs and public transport has been seen as an infection risk.

    For covid purposes

    • This time, it was decided to notify the GRAP that will “objectively and transparently” ensure an “institutional and automatic” response with regards to enforcement measures, lockdowns and unlock activities.
    • The plan was prepared in comparison with ascent data of the four waves at specific positivity rates of 0.5%, 1%, 2% and 5% and also considered on the basis of the earlier four waves.

  • Possibility of life on Saturn’s Moon

    NASA’s Cassini spacecraft has detected an unusually high concentration of methane, along with carbon dioxide and dihydrogen, in the moons of Saturn by flying through their plumes.

    What is the new observation?

    • The spacecraft has found that Titan has methane in its atmosphere and Enceladus has a liquid ocean with erupting plumes of gas and water.

    Are there methane-producing organisms on Earth?

    • Most of the methane on Earth has a biological origin.
    • Microorganisms called methanogens are capable of generating methane as a metabolic byproduct.
    • They do not require oxygen to live and are widely distributed in nature.
    • They are found in swamps, dead organic matter, and even in the human gut.
    • They are known to survive in high temperatures and simulation studies have shown that they can live in Martian conditions.
    • Methanogens have been widely studied to understand if they can be a contributor to global warming.

    Could there be methanogens on Enceladus?

    • We cannot conclude that life exists in the Enceladus ocean.
    • It is the probability that Enceladus’ hydrothermal vents could be habitable to Earth-like microorganisms.
    • There can be life hypotheses.

    What other processes could have produced the methane?

    • Methane could be formed by the chemical breakdown of organic matter present in Enceladus’ core.
    • Hydrothermal processes could help the formation of carbon dioxide and methane.
    • On Earth, hydrothermal vents on seafloors are known to release methane, but this happens at a very slow rate.
    • This hypothesis is plausible but only if Enceladus was formed through the accretion of organic-rich material from comets.
    • The results suggest that methane production from hydrothermal vents is not sufficient to explain the high methane concentration detected by Cassini in the plumes.
    • An additional amount of methane produced via biological methanogenesis could match Cassini’s observations.

  • Discrete Auroras on Mars

    The UAE’s Hope spacecraft, which is orbiting Mars since February this year, has captured images of glowing atmospheric lights in the Red Planet’s night sky, known as discrete auroras.

    What causes an Aurora on Earth?

    • Auroras are caused when charged particles ejected from the Sun’s surface — called the solar wind — enter the Earth’s atmosphere.
    • These particles are harmful, and our planet is protected by the geomagnetic field, which preserves life by shielding us from the solar wind.
    • However, at the north and south poles, some of these solar wind particles are able to continuously stream down, and interact with different gases in the atmosphere to cause a display of light in the night sky.
    • This display, known as an aurora, is seen from the Earth’s high latitude regions (called the auroral oval), and is active all year round.

    Where are they observed on Earth?

    • In the northern part of our globe, the polar lights are called aurora borealis or Northern Lights and are seen from the US (Alaska), Canada, Iceland, Greenland, Norway, Sweden and Finland.
    • In the south, they are called aurora australis or southern lights and are visible from high latitudes in Antarctica, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand and Australia.

    So, how are Martian auroras different?

    • Unlike auroras on Earth, which are seen only near the north and south poles, discrete auroras on Mars are seen all around the planet at night time.
    • Unlike Earth, which has a strong magnetic field, the Martian magnetic field has largely died out.
    • This is because the molten iron at the interior of the planet– which produces magnetism– has cooled.
    • However, the Martian crust, which hardened billions of years ago when the magnetic field still existed, retains some magnetism.
    • So, in contrast with Earth, which acts like one single bar magnet, magnetism on Mars is unevenly distributed, with fields strewn across the planet and differing in direction and strength.
    • These disjointed fields channel the solar wind to different parts of the Martian atmosphere, creating “discrete” auroras over the entire surface of the planet as charged particles interact with atoms and molecules in the sky– as they do on Earth.

    Why is it important to study them?

    • Studying Martian auroras is important for scientists, for it can offer clues as to why the Red Planet lost its magnetic field and thick atmosphere– among the essential requirements for sustaining life.

    Answer this PYQ in the comment box:

    Q.Which region of Mars has a densely packed river deposit indicating this planet had water 3.5 billion years ago?

    (a) Aeolis Dorsa

    (b) Tharsis

    (c) Olympus Mons

    (d) Hellas

    Back2Basics:

    Hope Orbiter

    • The Hope Probe, the Arab world’s first mission to Mars, took off from Earth in July last year, and has been orbiting the Red Planet since February.
    • The primary objective of the mission is to study Martian weather dynamics.
    • By correlating the lower atmosphere and upper atmosphere conditions, the probe will look into how weather changes the escape of hydrogen and oxygen into space.
    • By measuring how much hydrogen and oxygen is spilling into space, scientists will be able to look into why Mars lost so much of its early atmosphere and liquid water.
    • It is expected to create the first complete portrait of the planet’s atmosphere.
    • With the information gathered during the mission, scientists will have a better understanding of the climate dynamics of different layers of Mars’ atmosphere.

    Mars

    • Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, being larger than only Mercury.
    • In English, Mars carries the name of the Roman god of war and is often referred to as the “Red Planet”.
    • The latter refers to the effect of the iron oxide prevalent on Mars’s surface, which gives it a reddish appearance distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye.
    • Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, with surface features reminiscent of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth.
    • The days and seasons are comparable to those of Earth, because the rotational period, as well as the tilt of the rotational axis relative to the ecliptic plane, is similar.
    • Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System.

  • New online platform maps Pegasus spread

    An online database about the use of the spyware Pegasus was recently launched by the Forensic Architecture, Amnesty International and the Citizen Lab to document attacks against human rights defenders.

    What is Pegasus?

    • Last year, one of the biggest stories that broke into cyberspace was WhatsApp’s reports that 1,400 of its users were hacked by Pegasus, a spyware tool from Israeli firm NSO Group.
    • All spyware do what the name suggests — they spy on people through their phones.
    • Pegasus works by sending an exploit link, and if the target user clicks on the link, the malware or the code that allows the surveillance is installed on the user’s phone.
    • A presumably newer version of the malware does not even require a target user to click a link.
    • Once Pegasus is installed, the attacker has complete access to the target user’s phone.

    Why is Pegasus dangerous?

    • What makes Pegasus really dangerous is that it spares no aspect of a person’s identity. It makes older techniques of spying seem relatively harmless.
    • It can intercept every call and SMS, read every email and monitor each messaging app.
    • Pegasus can also control the phone’s camera and microphone and has access to the device’s location data.
    • The app advertises that it can carry out “file retrieval”, which means it could access any document that a target might have stored on their phone.

  • Government creates Ministry of Cooperation

    The Union Government has created a new Ministry of Cooperation with an aim to strengthen the cooperative movement in the country.

    With the creation of the Ministry of Cooperation, there will now be a total of 41 central government ministries. Several of these ministries also have separate departments and organizations under them.

    What defines a Cooperative?

    • A cooperative is “an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned enterprise”.
    • Cooperatives are democratically owned by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.

    Ministry of Cooperation

    • The ministry has been created for realizing the vision of ‘sahkar se samriddhi’ (through cooperation to prosperity).
    • The NGO Sahakar Bharati, whose founder member Satish Kashinath Marathe is a part-time director on the RBI board, says it was the first to pitch for the creation of a separate ministry for the cooperative sector.
    • It will provide a separate administrative, legal and policy framework for strengthening the cooperative movement in the country.
    • It will help deepen cooperatives as a true people-based movement reaching up to the grassroots.
    • The ministry will work to streamline processes for ‘ease of doing business’ for cooperatives and enable the development of multi-state cooperatives (MSCS).

    Why need such Ministry?

    • In our country, a Co-operative based economic development model is very relevant where each member works with a spirit of responsibility.
    • This creation has signalled its deep commitment to community-based developmental partnerships.

    Second new ministry created so far

    • The Ministry of Cooperation is the second ministry to be created since 2019 after the Modi government came to power for the second time.
    • Soon after taking charge, the government had created the Jal Shakti ministry.
    • However, it was not altogether new as the Ministry of Cooperation.
    • It was created by integrating two existing ministries dealing with water — Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, and Drinking Water & Sanitation ministry.

  • Person in news: Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair

    A noted filmmaker has recently announced his decision to produce the biopic of Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, an acclaimed lawyer and judge in the Madras High Court and one of the early builders of the Indian National Congress.

    Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair

    • Nair was born in the year 1857 in Mankara village of Malabar’s Palakkad district.
    • He belonged to an aristocratic family and his great grandfather was employed by the East India Company to enforce peace in the Malabar region.
    • His grandfather was employed as the chief officer under the Civilian Divisional Officer.

    His legal career

    • Nair was drawn towards Law while he was completing his graduation from Presidency College in Madras.
    • After completing his degree in Law, he was hired by Sir Horatio Shepherd who later became the Chief Justice of the Madras High Court.
    • Since his early days as a lawyer, Nair was known for his defiant attitude.
    • He went against a resolution passed by Indian vakils (advocates) of Madras stating that no Indian vakil would work as a junior to an English barrister.
    • His stance on the issue made him so unpopular that he was boycotted by the other vakils, but he refused to let that bother him.

    Legacy

    • Nair was known for being a passionate advocate for social reforms and a firm believer in the self-determination of India.
    • But what really stood out in his long glorious career is a courtroom battle he fought against the Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, Michael O’Dwyer.
    • Nair had accused O’Dwyer in his book, ‘Gandhi and anarchy’ for being responsible for the atrocities at the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
    • Consequently, he was fighting against an Englishman, in an English court that was presided over by an English jury.
    • In all senses, the case was bound to make history.
    • When the 1908 Montague-Chelmsford reforms were being discussed, he wrote an article in the Contemporary Review criticizing the English jury for being partial towards Englishmen.
    • This infuriated the Anglo-Indian community who petitioned the Viceroy and the Secretary of State for India objecting to his appointment as high court judge the first time.
    • He was once described by Edwin Montague, the secretary of state for India as an ‘impossible person’.

    Key positions held

    • In 1897 he became the youngest president of the INC in the history of the party till then, and the only Malayali to hold the post ever.
    • By 1908 he was appointed as a permanent judge in the Madras High Court. In 1902 Lord Curzon appointed him a member of the Raleigh University Commission.
    • In 1904 he was appointed as Companion of the Indian Empire by the King-Emperor and in 1912 he was knighted.
    • In 1915 he became part of the Viceroy’s Council, put in charge of the education portfolio.

    Career as judge

    • As a Madras High Court judge, his best-known judgments clearly indicate his commitment to social reforms.
    • In Budasna v Fatima (1914), he passed a radical judgement when he ruled that those who converted to Hinduism cannot be treated as outcasts.
    • In a few other cases, he upheld inter-caste and inter-religious marriages.

  • Arctic’s ‘Last Ice Area’

    A part of the Arctic’s ice called the “Last Ice Area”, located north of Greenland, has melted before expected. Scientists had believed this area was strong enough to withstand global warming.

    What is the Last Ice Area?

    • In an article published in 2015, National Geographic noted that climate projections forecast the total disappearance of summer ice in the Arctic by the year 2040.
    • However, the only place that would be able to withstand a warming climate would be this area of ice called the “Last Ice Area”.
    • But while this piece of ice above northern Canada and Greenland was expected to last the longest time, it is now showing signs of melting.
    • WWF claims that WWF-Canada was the first to call this area the‘ Last Ice Area’.

    Why is the area important?

    • The area is important because it was thought to be able to help ice-dependent species as ice in the surrounding areas melted away.
    • The area is used by polar bears to hunt for seals who use ice to build dens for their offspring.
    • Walruses too, use the surface of the ice for food search.

    When did the area start changing?

    • The first sign of change in LIA was observed in 2018.
    • Further, in August last year, sea ice showed its “vulnerability” to the long-term effects of climate change.
    • The ice in LIA has been thinning gradually over the years much like other parts of the Arctic Ocean.

    What are the reasons that explain the change?

    • About 80 per cent of thinning can be attributed to weather-related factors such as winds that break up and move the ice around.
    • The remaining 20 per cent can be attributed to the longer-term thinning of the ice due to global warming.

  • Indian Army Memorial in Italy

    During his four-day visit to the UK and Italy, the Indian Army Chief will inaugurate the Indian Army Memorial at Cassino in Italy, about 140 km away from Rome.

    What is the memorial about?

    • The memorial commemorates over 3,100 Commonwealth servicemen who took part in the effort to liberate Italy in World War II.
    • Apart from this, 900 Indian soldiers were also commemorated on this memorial.

    What was happening in Italy in WWII?

    • Under Benito Mussolini, Italy had joined Nazi Germany in 1936 and in 1940 it entered WWII (1939-1945) against the Allies.
    • But in 1943, Mussolini was overthrown and instead, Italy declared war on Germany.
    • The invasion of Italy by the Allies coincided with an armistice that was made with the Italians.
    • Even so, the UK’s National Army Museum notes that for two years during WWII, Italy became one of the war’s most “exhausting campaigns” because they were facing a skilled and resolute enemy.

    What was India’s involvement in World War II?

    • In the first half of the 1940s, India was still under British rule and the Indian Army fought in both the world wars.
    • It comprised both Indian and European soldiers.
    • Apart from this, there was the East India Company Army that also recruited both Indian and European soldiers and the British Army, which was also present in India.

    India the largest volunteer

    • Indian Army was the largest volunteer force during WWII, with over 2.5 million (more than 20 lakh) Indians participating.
    • These troops fought the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) as part of the Allies.
    • By 1945, the Allies had won, Italy had been liberated, Adolf Hitler was dead and India was barely a couple of years short of independence.
    • However, while millions of Indians participated, their efforts are not always recognized.