Author: Explains

Economic planning has been a central belief of India’s development strategy since independence. Since the time of independence, India has successfully followed the path of planned development.

Understanding How Planning Worked: The Model

The Indian Situation at the time of Independence.

The Choices

The basic question’s that planners had to decide are:

The First question:

The Second Question:

The Third Question:

The Chosen Path by the Indian Planners: Mahalanobis Model

Centralised (Imperative) versus Capitalist Economic Planning

Indicative versus Imperative Economic Planning

The Rationale for Planning in India

The Feature of Indian Planning

The Key Objectives of Planning in India

The Achievements of Planning in India

India’s development strategy, commitments, and approaches towards growth and development, as reflected in the Plans, have undergone various shifts over the years in response to the objective conditions of the economy and challenges of the moment. Some of these changes have been strikingly bold and original, others more modest.

Criticism of Indian Planning: The Debate

Despite the achievement, however, in recent years Indian planning has come under attack from a number of quarters, both within and outside the country. Countries which for long had centrally-planned economies have abandoned planning, at least overtly. It sometimes comes as a surprise to people abroad that India continues to preserve planning as a central pillar of its development strategy despite having had a vibrant market economy for many years now.

The dissatisfaction with planning originates from two main directions.

The Counter Arguments

The Relevance of Planning in the 21^st Century India

The Way Forward

1. All this is not to say, however, that the planning methodology should not change so as to reflect the new economic realities and the emerging requirements. It has, it must, and it will.
2. First of all, the – inter-sectoral balancing and indicative planning, at least in the sense of working out the optimal investment programme, which has been the centre-piece of Indian planning since the Second Plan, will continue to remain important in the foreseeable future.
3. Despite the much greater openness of the Indian economy, our very size and diversity will ensure that imports will continue to play a relatively small role in the economy, except in a very few products.  Thus, the requirement of planning in estimating the sectoral investment needs will remain.
4. A more important conceptual issue relates to the nature of the planning problem itself. In a controlled or directed economy, it is only necessary to work out a feasible path from the initial condition to the target. However, in a largely market economy this is not sufficient. Although working out the traditional feasible path continues to be necessary, it needs to be complemented by an assessment of the path the economy is likely to take on a business-as-usual basis.
5. The planning problem then is how to move from the projected path to the desired. Thus, in addition to the standard planning model, there is need to have two other models: (a) a projection model; and (b) a model which adequately captures the effect of policy measures on key parameters.

By,

Himanshu Arora

Doctoral Scholar in Economics & Senior Research Fellow, CDS, Jawaharlal Nehru University

Areas of Interest – North, South & East India (specifically Kalinga)

 

 

The five centuries that passed between the fall of the Mauryas and rise of the Guptas witnessed a lot of political instability and upheaval in the North of India. The South however remained fairly stable.

NORTH INDIA

I. Political Background

As the maps suggest, many kingdoms came up in North India. Despite being foreign rulers, they were assimilated in our culture and influenced it in many ways. The 3 most important among them were

1. Sunga Empire (185BCE–73 BCE) – East India

They succeeded the Mauryan Empire in Magadha. Pushyamitra Sunga was the first king of this dynasty.

2. Indo-Greek Kingdom (180BCE – 010AD) – North West India

The Greeks were the first foreign power in the sub-continent. After Alexander left, his generals stayed back. Hence the term Indo-Greek. They brought the Greek culture. Menander(165-145 BC) was the most important king in this time. In Pali Literature he is known as Milinda.

3. Indo-Scythian or Sakas (200 BC–400 AD) – West India

Sakas or Scythians where nomadic Central Asian tribes who destroyed the Indo-Greek rule in north-western India. They were pushed out from Central Asia and came to India. The Sakas were divided in five branches. Around 100AD, they give rise to Kushana Empire and Western Kshatrapas.

 

SL No.	Early	Later (100AD)
1	Afghanistan	Kushanas (60AD–240 AD)
2	Punjab (Taxila)
3	Mathura
4	Maharashtra + Saurashtra	Western Kshatrapa (27 independent) (35AD–405AD)
5	Central India (Ujjain)

 

Kanishka is the most celebrated king of Kushana empire. At its peak, his empire extended from Khotan in the northwest to Benaras in the east and Kashmir in north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south. The capital of his empire was Purushapur i.e. modern Peshawar.

 

II. Literature

Many important works of literature happened in this era.

Work	Author	Theme	Patronage
Junagarh Rock inscription	Rudradaman I from the Western Kshatrapa	He’s credited to have issued the 1st long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. It mentions the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudershana Lake. Junagarh Rock also contains inscriptions from Ashoka and Skandgupta (from the Gupta Period almost 800 years later).	Rudradaman I
Milindapanho	Nagasena	Menander asked Nagasena many questions related to philosophy and Buddhism, which together with Nagasena’s answers are recorded in Milindapanho or the Questions of Milinda.	Milinda
Saundarananda, Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi	Ashvaghosh	Buddhacharita is a complete lifecof Buddha written in the form of Mahakavya. It is the first Buddist book written in Sanskrit.	Kanishka
Charaka-Samhita	Charaka	Extends Ayurveda and lays down the concept of balance of 3 doshas called Vata, Pitta and Kapha.
Sushruta-Samhita	Sushruta(Father of Surgery)	He mentions more than 120 instruments

 

Junagarh Rock inscription.

 

III. Religion

 

1. Hinduism

Vaishnavism – There were 3 streams centered around worship of Vishnu or Bhagawat

1. Vishnu as a minor god in Vedic times. Was worshipped as the Sun and fertility cult.
2. Narayana was a non-vedic tribal god. He was also called bhagavat.
3. Vishnu came to be identified as the hero of the vrishni tribe known as Krishna-Vasudeva.

By 200BC all these 3 streams merged into one and led to the creation of Bhagvatism. By the end of late Gupta Period, it’s assimilated into Vaishnavism and was commonly referred by the latter.

2. Buddhism

Buddhism continued to receive royal patronage. Many kings of this era were Buddhists. Kanishka’s court was adorned by the presence of such scholars as Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna.

A major development in Buddhism was it’s splitting up in to two sects –The Hinayana and the Mahayana. Kanishka organized the 4^th Buddhist council where this split happened.

 

Hinayana	Mahayana
Also known as Lesser Vehicle	Greater Vehicle
Treat Buddha has a guide (Since Buddha never said he was God)	Treat Buddha as a God
Worshipped only in form of symbols that represent various stages in the life of Buddha	Worshipped in human form, Bodhisattvas.
Literature only in Pali	Sanskrit

 

This phase also witnessed the spreading of Mahayana Buddhism to south and south east Asia.

 

IV. Architecture

1. Stupas

The Sungas were great patrons of art and architecture. They contributed to the expansion of Bharut and Sanchi Stupas.

Bharhut and Sanchi

	Bharut	Sanchi
Time Period	100 BC is the accepted date for Bharut. Slightly earlier than Sanchi and Ajanta. Said to have been started by Ashoka but much of its work has been done in the time of the Sungas.	100 BC. Said to have been started by Ashoka but much of its work has been done in the time of the Sungas. The decorated gateways with lavish carvings were done by Satavahanas.
Location	Satna District of MP. Was on a major trade route from western coastal regions to Pataliputra.	A very large complex 13-14km from Vidisha, the capital of Mauryan Empire. Vidisha was a very important trading town. It was on the Dakshinapath – an offshoot of the Uttarapath, which connected Taxila to Pataliputra and further east.
Stupa	Has been reconstructed in Indian Museum Calcutta	There are 3 stupas Stupa 1- The Great Stupa. Largest of them. It has 4 gates with Toranas. Stupa 2 – This is the earliest stupa. Same time as Bharut but simpler. Stupa 3 –Has only 1 Torana.

 

Bharut : Themes Represented

Discovered by Cunninghum. Has been reconstructed in Indian Museum Calcutta. Stone Architecture. Surrounded by Vedika roughly 3 feet.

 

Only 1 Torana has been found but it is suspected that there would’ve been 4.

As evident, the Vedika and Torana have beautiful carvings. They are 5 elements –

1. Visual narratives about the life of Buddha

Buddha is represented in his iconic form – feet, bodhi tree, dharmachakra, empty seat and not the human form (symbolizing the Theravadin/ Hinayana Buddhism).

2. Jataka Kathas

Jatakas Stories like the Kaka Jataka(Monoscenic), Ruru Jataka

3. Yakshas and Yakshis

These gods of local cults start assimilating into Buddhism. It is believed that Yakshis were made through the contributions of women.

4. Medallions

There are also medallions like the one shown below. They represent the sun god, various bodhisattvas, etc.

Sanchi : Themes Represented

Sanchi Complex has 3 stupas. Follow the Map below.

Stupa No. 1 is the largest and is called the Great Stupa. It has 4 gates with Toranas. In the pic, you see the Northern Gate.

There are extensive carvings on the Torana. The themes are similar to those of Bharut.

 

Stupa 2 – This is the earliest stupa. Same time as Bharut but simpler.

Stupa 3 –Has only 1 Torana.

 

 

2. Pillars

 

1. Heliodorus Pillar

• Stone column erected by Heliodorus, Greek ambassador to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra, around 150BC
• In honor of Vasudeva.

 

V. Independent Art

 

A. Sunga Art

-Standing sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshis, discovered from Gwalior and Mathura

-Dwarfish Yaksha from the Pithalkhora caves in Central India

 

B. The Gandhara School and the Mathura School of Art

This period saw the emergence to two very important schools of art – one in Gandhara, North West Frontier Province and the other in Mathura.

The Gandhara Art received patronage from various dynasties – Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan Kings. It was during Kanishka’s reign that both these centers flourished.

 

Gandhara	Mathura
Strong Greek influence and was based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit. It is also known as Graeco-Buddhist School of art. Assimilating various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is a hallmark of the Gandhara style.	No foreign Influence, however, later it cross fertilized with the Gandhara School. Its development took place indigenously.Initially inspired by Yaksha Images
Blue-grey Mica / Grey Sandstone.	Spotted Red Sandstone
Rendering of drapery with sharp flowing folds similar to those shown in Roman togas. Finer details and realistic images. Buddha carved out in various Mudras. Wavy curled hair.	Early period: Light volume having fleshy body. Later Period: Flashiness reduced. Not much attention to detailed sculpting.
Halo not decorated. Images are very expressive.	The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated. Images less expressive.
Mainly Buddhism	All religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism

 

Gandhara School : Themes represented

Buddha is depicted standing frontally with one leg bent.

Greek Deities

Zeus Apollo, Athena indicating the Greeks wanted to preserve their culture.

Portraits of Kings

Other Sites

 

Mathura School – Themes represented

The Buddhist religion greatly flourished under the patronage of Kushan emperors, and several images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas were produced after the earlier Yaksha types.

The first purely Indian Style art and sculptures were produced here. Mathura Art is famous for its iconographic traits – identification of particular deities based on the postures, attributes, vehicles.

Common Facial Features – Oval/ Roundish faces, open eyes, thick lips and sharp nose.

Fleshy full-body figures in a number of postures. Female figures are voluptuous, heavy round breasts, narrow waist. Male figures are shown with a slight V shape.

i. Buddhism

Buddha seen in Abhaymudra with one hand raised.

ii. Jainism

Mathura also becomes an important center of Jainism. A new kind of worshipping develops in this era – that of the Ayagapattas. The Jains produced votive tablets called ayagapattas that contain auspicious marks of worship such as fish couple or matsya yugala, the swatiska, etc.

Jain Ayagapattas with a Tirthankara at the middle.

 

iii. Shaivism

Various Shaiva images have been found from the region though their numbers are limited.

• Chaturmukhalinga.

• Karttikeya-Skanda

iv. Vaishnavism

• Balarama is shown with a snake canopy . Sometimes he carries a lion-staff plough.

v. Local Cults

Naga Cult is very prominent. A lot of Naga Temples have been found in/around this area.

 

vi. Statue of Kanishka

Last but not the least, we have the statue of Kanishka.

 

 

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SOUTH INDIA

I. Political Background

In the south, the Sangam Period starts (circa 300BC – 300AD). We see the emergence for 3 main kingdoms

1. Cholas – Kaveri Delta

2. Cheras – Kaveri Karoor

3. Pandya – Vagai, Madhurai

 

In the Deccan, the Satvahanas declare themselves as independent after the fall of the Mauryan Empire and emerge as a powerful force. Their kingdom is centered around Aurangabad.

Their 3rd king, Satakarni I seems to have performed two Ashvamedhayajna. His achievements are described in detail in the Nanaghat Inscription. Referred to as lord of Dakshinapatha.

The strongest Satvahana ruler – Gautamiputra Satakarni carried out expeditions against the Saka rulers and drove them out of Maharashtra. His achievements are recorded in Nasik inscription. By 225 AD, the Satvahanas are replaced by Ikshwaku (refer map).

 

II. Literature

A. Sangam Literature

South sees the emergence of Tamil Language. For the first time we come to know of life in South India using literature. Sangam means assembly of scholars. Each Sangam consisted of a number of distinguished poets and erudite scholars who selected the best ones from amongst the works submitted to them. Many female authors seem to have contributed.

The Sangam classics, consisting of 18 works (8 anthologies of lyrics and 10 long poems), are well known for their directness of expression. The eight anthologies called the Ettuttogai are considered to be the earliest work belonging to the BC 300. The 10 poems called Pattupattu. They are divided in to

1) Aham deals purely with the subjective emotions of the lover.

2) Puram deals with objective emotions, mainly the valour and glory of kings, good and evil.

 

Some important works Sangam works are as follows –

 

Name	Author	Notes
Thirukkural	Thiruvalluvar	Serves as a manual of precepts to guide one to noble living
Agattiyam	Agathiyar	The first known book on Tamil grammar, believed to be lost beyond redemption.
Tolkāppiyam	Tolkappiyar	Work on the grammar of the Tamil language and the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature and Linguistics. It talks of Thinai(explained below)

 

Thinai : Another fascinating aspect of Sangam literature is its reference to 5 landscapes(eco-zones) and people associated with them known as Thinai.

 

Ecozone as mentioned in Sangam Literature	Refers to	Associated human settlement
Marudam	Agricultural lands, Plains	Peasants, farmers
Mullai	Forest	Pastoral people
Palai	Desert Lands	Bandits, Travellers
Kurunji	Mountains/Hilly Areas	Hill tribes
Neydhal	Coastal Areas	Fishermen

 

B. Tamil Epics outside the Sangam Literature

We have 5 great epics.

No	Name	Author	Notes
1	Silappatikāram	Ilango Adigal	Love story between Kovalan who prefers the courtesan Madhavi of Kaveripattinam over his wife Kannagi.
2	Manimekalai	Cattan	Story of the daughter, Manimekalai, born out of love of Kovalan and Madhavi. There is also an elaborate exposition of the doctrines of Buddhism.
3	Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi		Adopted from Sanskrit Mahapurana, is predominantly sensuous, though Jain philosophy is brought to practical aspects of life
4	Valayapathi
5	Kundalakēci

III. Religion

We see no specific adherence to religion. The Sangam texts were secular in nature(one main reason how they differed from the Vedas)

IV. Architecture

A. Stupas

1. The Amaravati Stupa

Covered with locally available white limestone.

5 pillars at each gateway. These 5 pillars represent the 5 milestones of the life of Buddha (discussed earlier)

Use this tool to explore further – http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/buddha/explore/intro.html.

 

2. Nagarjunakonda Stupa

Built by the successor of Satvahanas, the Ikshwakus. They continuted the great art traditions of Satvahanas.

 

B. Rock-cut caves

1. Karle caves & Bhaja caves

Both caves belong to Hinayana Buddhism.

Karla Cave is the largest Hinayana Buddhist Chaitya in India built during Satavahana’s rule. Karla is the best example of rock-cut architecture, which is believed to carve out from a living rock. Some of its 2000 year-old wooden beams are still alive.

Bhaja caves are also mainly Viharas and Chaityas.

• Noteworthy are the Dampati and the Mithuna figures as also the pairs riding the magnificent elephant crowning the pillars forming imposing colonnades.
• The figures are more than life size and are represented with powerful and muscular physique.

2. Ajanta caves

The earliest group of caves consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. They were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, probably under the patronage of the Satavahanas who ruled the region.

Check out our Case Study on Ajanta and Ellora to explore more.

 

V. Independent Art

A. The Amaravati School of Art

• Sculptural form in this area is characterised by intense emotions.
• Figures are slender, have a lot of movement, bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the sculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi.
• White Marble was used in this art and the themes were Buddha’s life and Jatakas tales. The curly hairs of Buddha is a feature that is influenced by the Greeks.
• In this school, the Kings, Princes, Palaces etc. have got prominence.

 

A relief medallion from Amravati belonging to the 2 century A.D. is a masterly representation of a scene showing the subjugation or taming of Nalagiri, a mad elephant let loose on the Buddha.

 

Carving on outer wall of Amaravati Stupa

A famous carving depicts the adoration of the feet of the Buddha by four women and belongs to the 2nd century A.D. from Amravati.

Three-dimensional space in the relief sculpture is devised by using pronounced volume, angular bodies and complex overlapping.

 

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References and Image credits:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Ashoka_Rock_Edict_at_Junagadh.jpg/440px-Ashoka_Rock_Edict_at_Junagadh.jpg

http://www.madhyapradeshtourism.gov.in/avimage/MapSanchi.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Sanchi_Stupa.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Stupa_3,_Sanchi_01.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Heliodorus_pillar.jpg

http://mw2.google.com/mw-panoramio/photos/medium/79445820.jpg

http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/02545/amaravathi_2545762f.jpg

http://media.web.britannica.com/eb-media/37/74737-004-85754D33.jpg

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/498351514987614297/

http://image.slidesharecdn.com/mauryan-gandhar-gupta-110424184708-phpapp01/95/mauryan-gandhargupta-23-728.jpg?cb=1303672249

http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=251183&partId=1

 

10635Areas of Interest : North India, Central India and South India

 

 

Unlike the previous period, this period saw was marked by political stability that ensured and encouraged cultural florescence. The Guptas and Vakatakas were the major powers in the north and central india respectively.

South however witnessed a transitionary period called the Kalabhra Interregnum.

This transitionary period was known as the ‘Dark Ages’ and lasted for 300 years. Not much is known about this time.

More can be read here – http://www.gloriousindia.com/history/kalabhra_interregnum.html

 

NORTH INDIA

1. Political Background

Gupta Empire extended for close to 300 years – almost twice the duration of Mauryan Empire and 1.5 times the British Empire.

The maps above illustrate how they unified the whole of Northern India by around 480 AD. The Gupta Empire saw many great rulers who patronized art, architecture and science. No wonder it has been referred to as the Golden Age. (this however remains contested as the society in the times of Gupta period showed signs of degeneration).

Finally the Guptas lost out to the Hunas.

 

II. Literature and Language

 

A. Sanskrit

Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas. Needless to say, Classic Sanskrit literature saw tremendous development under their patronage.

Two great epics(Mahakayva), the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were compiled around 4AD. Their importance is as follows

1. They served as a precursor to various other Sanskrit literature
2. They are the origins of many of the stories and anecdotes of the social, religious and cultural history of India.
3. They were translated into various languages that gave them a renewed relevance and meaningful reincarnation.
4. These epics in-turn shaped new languages providing them with substance and style.

Puranas follow on the lines of epics. Some of the earlier Puranas were compiled in this era. There are 18 Mahapuranas and 19 Upa-puranas.

The Puranas were associated with revivalism of Hinduism. They were in the form of stories which made them more palatable to masses than the earlier bramanical text – the Vedas.

Besides the epics, this period also saw the development of kavya (poetry), nataka (drama) and other literature.

Two things can be noted about plays

1. They do not come across tragedies.
2. Characters of high social status speak Sanskrit: whereas those of lower status and women speak Prakrit. This particular feature throws light on the status of Sanskrit and Prakrit in society.

The table below summarizes the important works of this time.

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Allahabad Prasasti	Harisena	An inscription. The Allahabad Pillar also has inscriptions by Ashoka and Mughal Emperor Jahangir	Eulogy on the conquests of Samudragupta. Inscribed on the Allahabad Pillar	Samudragupta
Kumarasambhava	Kalidas	Mahakavya(epic poem)	An epic poem depicting birth of Kartikeya, son of shiva and Parvati
Raghuvamsa			Geneology of Lord Rama. The Ikshvakus are also known as Raghuvanshis hence the name.
Malavikagnimitra		Play	Story of love between Agnimitra, the Sunga Prince and the hand-maiden of his chief queen, Mālavikā. Also gives an account of his father Pushyamitra Sunga’s Rajasuya Yagna.
Vikramorvasiya			It’s a Sanskrit drama depicting the love story of Puruvas, a Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect the qualities of Chandragupt Vikramaditya.
Abhigyana Shakuntala			A sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.
Ritusamhara		Lyrical Poetry	A mini epic poem on six seasons (Ritu). Considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.	Chandragupta II
Meghaduta		Lyrical Poetry	Cloud is a messenger. An exiled yaksha who is pining for his beloved on a lonely mountain peak. When, at the beginning of a monsoon, a cloud perches on the peak, he asks it to deliver a message to his love in the Himalayan city of Alaka.	Chandragupta II
Mricchakatika	Sudraka	Plays	Mrichhakatika means a “little clay cart’. Traces the love story of Charudatta with Vasantsena. There is a hindi movie on the same work starring Rekha and Shekhar Suman.
Vinavasavadatta
Padmaprabhritaka			Bhana (short one-act monologue)
Mudrārākṣasa	Vishakhadatta		Mudrarakshasha means “Ring of the Demon”. It narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to throne.
Swapnavasavadatta	Bhasa		Vatya King Udayan and his queen Vasavadatta.
Vakyapadiya	Bhartṛhari	Grammar	A treatise on Sanskrit Grammar
Amarakosha	Amarasimha	Grammar	Sanskrit Grammar	Chandragupta II

 

Aryabhatiyam	Aryabhatta	Maths	Also mentions Suryasiddhanta. Aryabhatta is credited with the discovery of algebra. He formulated the area of triangle which led to the origin of Trigonometry. He *did not* invent zero.
Panchasiddhanta	Varahamihira	Astrology	Gives a summary of 5 schools of astrology – Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta. Also discusses concepts of Trigonometry.
Brihatsamhita	Varahamihira	Astrology

 

Note4Students – This information is high priority for prelims. Try to get the correct pronunciation of the texts. Follow the theme to remember their names.

 

III. Religion

A. Hinduism

• Vaishnavism – Bhagavatism had being gaining
• Emergence of Pauranic Hinduism

The brahmanical tradition witnessed a decisive change from what was traditionally practised as “Vedic tradition”. Vedic Brahmanism gave way to Pauranic Hinduism. Sacrifices/ Rituals were not entitrely abandoned but they lost their steam.

Where Vedic Brahmanism was intimately linked with lavish sacrifices and upper varna-jatis, the Pauranic Hinduism became widely popular as it was open to all varna-jatis including Shudras, women etc and encouraged the worship of a personal deity.

Its accesibility lay in performing acts that required little investments – the giving of gifts, keeping of fasts and vows, travelling collectively to places of pilgrimages and subscribing to local mythologies.

B. Buddhism

Buddhism no longer received royal patronage unlike the earlier times. Samudragupta’s permission to the King of Ceylon to erect a magnificent monastery in Bodh-Gaya indicates that Buddhism was given a good patronage.

Nalanda prospered under their patronage.

Post 500AD it saw a new phase in Buddhism marked by the following developments

1. Homogenization with Hinduism: Hindus practiced devotion to Buddha as a reincarnation of Lord Vishnu. In a way, Hinduism went on to assimilate Buddhism as a part/ branch of its own.

2. Humble beginnings of what later comes to be known as tantric Buddhism. The new form of text associated with this tradition, the tantras, appeared during the Gupta period, and there are indications that distinctively Tantric rituals began to be employed at this time as well. Tara is a female Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism who appears as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is known as the “mother of liberation”, and represents the virtues of success in work and achievements.

This will later develop into full fledged Vajrayana cult and reach its peak during the Pala Empire.

C. Jainism

Jainism spread into Gujarat. At Valabhi, took place the compilation of two Jain canonical texts in two councils in 4th and 5th century.

D. Shaktism and Tantrism

Shaktism and Tantrism are closely associated cults. They started as different streams. Shaktism revolves around placing the women at the center. Later this cult starts to be associated with Shaivism, where Shakti is seen as Shivas consort.

The name Tantrism is derived from sacred texts called tantras. The earliest works were written in the Gupta period. In course of time, tantrism manages to penetrate all religion.

 

 

IV. Architecture

 

A. Stupas

1. Dhamekh Stupa

This is the only known example of stupa developed during Gupta era. Originally built in 249 BCE during the reign of king Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty, this massive and prominent structure has over time gone through several expansions and additions. This solid cylindrical shaped Stupa made of red bricks and stone.

 

 

B. Caves

The earliest examples of religious architecture were cave-temples which typically had exteriors decorated with relief sculpture and a single carved doorway.

Inside the shrine, ritual sculptures were placed such as a Shiva linga and the walls were richly decorated with more carvings showing scenes from mythology.

1. Udayagiri Caves

Note4Students – There are a number of places in India with the same name, the most notable being the mountain called Udayagiri at Rajgir in Bihar and the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Orissa. The caves in Orissa correspond to the Jainism.

The Udayagiri caves belonging to the Gupta period are located in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.

There are about 14 caves but you need to focus on only 1 of them: Cave #5 – Dedicated to the Varaha avatar of Vishnu.

This shrine is one of the finest examples of Gupta art, the celebrated relief showing Vishnu in his incarnation as the boar-headed Varaha. Varaha avatar rescued the Earth from the chaos of the cosmic sea.

The scholars say that when Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) renovated the cave in this manner, he wanted to portray the rescue of Northern India from the political instability and fragmentation that it had experienced prior to the rise of the Gupta Empire.

 

 

2. Junagarh Caves

The so-called “Buddhist Caves” are not actually caves, but three separate sites of rooms carved out of stone to be used as monks’ quarters.

Unique feature = Presence of a 30-50 ft high citadel like feature – Upar Kot in front of the prayer hall

3. Bagh Caves:

Located on the bank of Baghani river in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh. These rock cut caves posses the most amazing paintings known to be made by ancient man. According to legend these caves were established by Buddhist monk Dataka. Out of the initial 9 caves only 5 have been extant.

Bagh Caves are known for Mural Paintings – thick mud plaster in brownish orange color. The most famous features of Bagh Caves are these murals made in tempera technique.

http://www.chinkarajourneys.com/uploads/map/Bagh_murial_painting.jpg>

Over this plaster there was done lime-priming and then paintings were laid. This is also known as tempera technique, which refers to use of permanent fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder media.

4. Nasik Caves

http://www.wondermondo.com/Images/Asia/India/Maharashtra/Pand.jpg>

A group of 23 caves, also called as ‘Pandav-Leni’.

These caves belong to the Hinayana Buddhism (have no images of Buddhas)

Contrary to what their name suggests they have nothing to do with the characters of Mahabharata (the Pandavas).

C. Temples

Not satisfied with caves, the Guptas were the first dynasty to build permanent free-standing Hindu temples. This lay the foundation of Nagara School of art. Temple architecture with the development of a square sanctum and pillared portico emerged during the Gupta period.

Among the 5 stages of temple development you will find a gradual progression from flat-roofed, monolithic temples in initial stage to the sculptured ‘shikhara’ in the later years.

Stage #1 – Temple 17, Sanchi & Kankali Temple, Tigwa.

• Flat roof temples
• Square temples
• Shallow pillared approach at the front
• Low platforms

 

Stage #2 – Parvati Temple, Nachnakuthara, MP

• Continued- Flat roof, square pillared approach (not shallow)
• High or upraised platforms
• Covered ambulatory around the sanctum (garbhagriha) for worshippers to do a parikrama
• Two storied temples (sometimes)

 

Stage #3 – Dashavatara Temple, Deogargh & Durga Temple Aihole, Karnata

• Most of the features of 2nd stage are carried forward
• Flat roof evolved to a curviliniear roof (shikhara)
• Introduction of Panchayatan style of temple making

A hindu temple is a Panchayatana one when the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with by 4 subsidiary shrines at 4 corners making it a total of 5 shrines. The origin of the name are the sanskrit words Pancha (5) et ayatana (containing).

 

Stage #4 – Ter Temple, Sholapur

• Most of the features of 3rd stage are carried forward
• Noticable change from square to rectangular shape of the main shrine

 

Stage #5

• Most of the features of 3rd stage are carried forward
• Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections

Stage 3 Temples in detail –

1. Dasavatara temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh

Dasavatara = Das (10) + Avatara (Incarnation). The temple depicts the 10 avataras of Vishnu.

• First North Indian temple with a shikhara.
• Earliest known Panchayatana temple in North India.
• Two river goddesses, the Ganga and Yamuna, are mentioned as attendants of Shiva and this occurs as a regular feature of temple architecture from the doorways of the Dasavatara temple.
• There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls:
  • On the west – Gajendramoksha is the story of achieving moksha, symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s suppression of an asura Who had taken the form of an elephant
  • On the east – Nara-Narayan shows the discussion between the human soul and the eternal divine
  • On the south – The Sheshashayana Vishnu panel is a superb piece of art

• Sheshashayana is the form of Vishnu where he is shown reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta whose seven hoods form a canopy over his crowned head
• His consort Lakshmi is massaging his right leg and two attendant figures stand behind her
• Various gods and celestials are hovering above. Lord Brahma can be seen.
• In the lower panel, the two demons Madhu and Kaitabha, in an attacking attitude, are challenged by the four personified weapons of Vishnu

 

2. Bhitargaon Temple, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

source

• The first full unit temple with a Vimana.
• It is the oldest remaining Hindu temple made entirely of bricks/terracotta.
• The temple is built on a square plan with double-recessed corners and faces east. There tall pyramidal spire over the garbhagriha.
• Terracotta sculpture depicts both secular and religious theme such as deities like ganesha adi virah mahisasaur-mardani and river goddess. Myths and stories representing abduction of Sita and the penance of nara-narayan.

 

3. Ahichhatra Temple (Shiva Temple)

The Shiva temple at Ahichhatra belongs to the Gupta period 4th century A.D. It is famous for its two life-sized terracotta images of Ganga and Yamuna.

Ganga and Yamuna are installed in niches flanking the main steps leading to the upper terrace of the temple.

Ganga stands on her vehicle, the makara. and Yamuna on the kacchap.

 

V. Art

 

A. Sculpture

1. Mathura School

Mathura school also witnessed some development during the Gupta period. A prominent sculpture is Standing Buddha at Matura

• Red sandstone image of the Buddha dated to 500AD
• Right hand in abhayamudra, assuring protection, and the left holding the hem of the garment.
• Smiling countenance with down-cast eyes is robed in spiritual ecstasy
• Robe covering both shoulders is skillfully represented with delicately covered schematic folds and clings to the body
• Head is covered with schematic spiral curls with a central protuberance and the elaborate halo decorated with concentric bands of graceful ornamentation.

 

2. The Sarnath School of Sculpture

The art of Bharhut, Amravati, Sanchi and Mathura came closer and closer; melting into one – The Sarnath School.

Its plasticity is derived from that of Mathura and its elegance from that of Amravati. Plasticity is a term used to describe a rich, three-dimensional or sculptural presence of a building.

The human figure takes center stage and nature becomes the background.

A prominent sculpture is Standing Buddha at Sarnath

• his right hand in abhayamudra.
• Unlike the delicately carved drapery folds of the Mathura Buddha, only the fringe of the diaphanous robe is here indicated.
• The eyes gaze downward, not directly at, but into the viewer
• The very fine high-grade surface seems to have a soft bloom -a specially distinctive Sarnath quality

 

Difference between Sarnath and Mathura School Buddha

Sarnath School	Mathura School
Relaxed attitude in the body of the sculpture. Visible bends	Mathura School had a columnar rigidity in similar works
Very fine draping – almost invisible on the body but left hanging out on the sides	In the Mathura School, the drapes were elaborate and folds were very much visible
The body in its smooth and shining plasticity constitutes the principal theme of the Sarnath artists	Mathura sculpture was more rigid
At Sarnath the material used was cream coloured sandstone	Mathura sculpture was made of moderately fine red sandstone.

Follow the link for more remarkable examples or Sarnath School Sculptures

http://www.sarnathmuseumasi.org/Gallery-No1.aspx

http://varanasi.nic.in/history/ams1.html

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References and image credits:

Mudras – http://www.buddhas-online.com/mudras.html

Timeline-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cz1413OZGb8

http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/indian.html

Areas of Interest : North India

 

 

                 NORTH INDIA

I. Political Background

The period from sixth to late fourth century BC witnessed the rise of territorial polities (mahajanapadas) in North India. This culminated into the establishment of the Mauryan Empire in about 325 BC. The Mauryan Empire was a pan Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya.

Ashoka is considered the most significant ruler of the empire.

II. Literature and Language

The Mauryan era witnessed very few literary contributions. These contributions were either in Prakrit or Pali or Sanskrit.

1. Sanskrit

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Arthashastra	Chanakya	Political text written in Sanskrit	Deals with statecraft, polity. Economic policy, military strategy and overall administration of the Mauryan realm.	Chandragupta Maurya

 

2. Pali and Prakrit

The religious books of Buddhism and Jainism were written in Pali and Prakrit (language of the masses) respectively. This ensured even common men read and understood religion.

The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.

The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets – Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Work	Author	Type	Theme
Vinaya Pitaka	Upali	Buddhist scripture written in Pali. Name meaning basket of discipline.	Deals with monastic rules for monks and nuns.
Abhidhamma Pitaka		Buddhist scripture written in Pali	Deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
Sutta Pitaka	Ananda	Pali collection of Buddhist writings of Thervada Buddhism	Deals with dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma.

The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are interesting stories of previous births of Buddha. Each birth story is called a Jataka.

The Jain texts were written in Prakrit.

Work	Author	Type	Theme
Kalpasutra	Bhadrabahu	Jain scripture written in Prakrit.	Deals with the life stories of the last two Jain Tirthankaras, Parshvanath and Mahavira. In the eight day long festival of Paryushan by Jain monks Kalpasutra is read for the general Jain people.

 

Besides these texts, Megasthenes’ Indica which was written in Greek also sheds light on Mauryan administration.

 

III. Religion

Mauryan rulers were tolerant towards all religions.

1. Hinduism

Despite increased popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, Hinduism remained popular too. Hinduism underwent changes during this era. Though Yajanas were performed but animal sacrifices were stopped.

2. Buddhism

Buddhism flourished during Ashoka’s realm. He sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism. Ashoka is also credited for construction of 84000 stupas. Ashoka also convened the Third Buddhist Council.

History of Buddhist Council – These councils were Buddhist meetings held periodically which included Buddhist monks, nuns and religious leaders.

 

Buddhist Council	Timeline	Location	Outcome	Spiritual Leader (Monk)	Patronage
First Buddhist Council	Around 400 BC after Lord Buddha’s death.	Sattapanni caves, Rajgriha	Led to formulation of Sutta and Vinaya Pitaka.	Mahakasyapa	Ajatashatru
Second Buddhist Council	Around 383 BC	Vaishali	The aim was to settle the dispute on practices of Vinaya Pitaka which led to the first schism of Buddhism– Mahasamghikas and Sthaviravadins sects were formed. Sthaviravadins followed orthodox norms while Mahasamghikas followed less rigid norms.	Yasa	Kalasoka
Third Buddhist Council	Around 251 BC	Pātaliputra	Led to formulation of Abhidhamma Pitaka.	Moggaliputta Tissa	Ashoka
Fourth Buddhist Council	Around 72 AD	Kashmir	Buddhists further divided into two sects- Mahayana and Hinayana.	Vasumitra	Kanishka

Explore more – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cz1413OZGb8

 

3. Jainism

Growing merchant community made religious grants to Jainism which ensured the religion prospered. Chandragupta Maurya became a Jain follower and sent missions to the South to propagate the religion further. The decline in animal sacrifices was a result of increasing influence of Jainism and Buddhism.

 

IV. Architecture

For the first time, we see state-sponsored art and architecture. Architectures prior to this period seem to have been made of wood and hence were not able to survive. A case in point is the 80 pillared hall at Kumrahar which is often considered to be a Mauryan palace.

A. Stupas (click for more details)

For the first time, we see the construction of Stupas. These are hemispherical dome structures originally built over the relics of Buddha after his death. There were 8 of them in distributed in places where Buddha seemed to have lived – Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapilvastu, Allakapa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar. Ashoka is credited to have commissioned construction of 84000 stupas.

The components of a Stupa are shown in the diagram –

 

 

B. Pillars and Capitals (click for more details)

After the Harappan period stone sculpting had disappeared. Its re-emergence is seen in Ashokan pillar and capitals.

Summary of sites where capitals have been discovered

Crowning Animal	Site
Quadruple Lion	Sarnath
Single Lion	Basarah – Bakhira, Lauriya – Nandangarh, Rampurva, Vaishali
Elephant	Sankissa
Bull	Rampurva

 

1. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh

• Another remarkable sculpture is Sarnath’s lion capital
• Characterized by four Asiatic lions standing back to back
• It was adopted as India’s national emblem in 1950.
• Figures of horse, lion, bull and elephant are sculpted on the abacus.
• This pillar capital symbolized Dharmachakraparivartana that is the first sermon of Buddha.
• The abacus has four wheels with 24 spokes each. This wheel with 24 spokes is adopted in the National Flag.

 

1. Basarah – Bakhira, Bihar

• Single crowning lion sitting on a square abacus.
• Compared to other capitals, this sculpture is relatively less ornamented.

 

2. Lauriya – Nandangarh Lion Capital

• In Champaran district of Bihar.
• The pillar is inscribed with edicts of Ashoka
• Characterized by round abacus and lion as the crowning animal.

 

3. Sankisa Elephant Capital

• Located in Uttar Pradesh
• After Buddha’s death Ashoka installed series of columns in Sankissa among them only the Elephant capital survives.

 

 

4. Rampurva, Bihar

• Is a hybridization of Persian and Indian elements.
• The abacus shows Greek influence and has beautiful floral designs.
• Zebu bull is depicted as the crowning animal.

 

C. Temples

Evidence of the earliest known structural temples has been recovered through excavations at the Bairat District of Jaipur, Rajasthan.

 

 

• This shrine is dated to the 3rd century B.C
• A circular brick and timber shrine of the Mauryan period
• Was made of lime-plastered brick work
• Points to construction of wooden pillars.
• Surrounded by a seven feet wide ambulatory.

 

Temple 40′ at Sanchi, has a similar plan, it was a stone temple on an apsidal plan enclosed by an ambulatory, and raised on a high, rectangular scale, approached by two flights of steps from diagonally opposite sides. The super-structure was possibly built of wood, and has disappeared.

 

D. Caves

Many caves were built during the time of Ashoka. They were mostly Chaityas and Viharas (click to read more)

1. BARABARA CAVES

• Oldest surviving rock cut cave in India.
• These caves are situated in the twin hills of Barabar (four caves) and Nagarjuni (three caves) located in Bihar.
• These caves were granted to Ajivika sect by Ashoka. Ashokan inscriptions have been found in this cave.
• Caves are carved out of granite and have a polished surface.
• Barabar Hill contains four caves, namely, Karan Chaupar, Lomas Rishi, Sudama and Visva Zopri.
• Among these most important are Sudama and Lomas Rishi Caves as they are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India

 

2. LOMAS RISHI CAVE

• The arch-like shape facade of Lomas Rishi Caves, imitate the contemporary timber architecture

 

3. SUDAMA CAVE

• This cave has better finishing in comparison to Lomas Rishi cave. Inner walls are highly polished.

 

V. Independent Art

In visual art of Mauryan period human figures are conspicuously absent. Salient exceptions to this pattern are the yaksha and yakshi sculptures.

A. Sculpture

Yaksha and Yakshi figures – Life size figures have been found in Vidisha, Patna and Mathura.

DIDARGANJ YAKSHI

• Found from a Didarganj, Patna.
• A wonderfully modeled life-size standing image of a Yakshini holding a chauri (flywhisk)
• Characterized by elaborate ornamentations and sensuous appeal depicting Indian sculptural tradition.
• Highly polished surface made up of sandstone.

PAKHAM, YAKSHA

• Located in Mathura
• Made up of sandstone

 

Elephant in Dhauli, Orissa

• Dhauli hills are located on the banks of river Daya south of Bhubaneshwar
• The oldest Buddhist sculptures in Orissa is the rock-cut elephant above which Ashokan Edicts are spotted.

 

Male Torso, Lohanipur

 

– Highly polished. The nude torso of a Jain Tirthankara or a saviour of the Digambara sect found at Lohanipur

 

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References and image credits

1. https://www.asianart.com/articles/jaya/yakspar.html

2. http://www.mapability.com/travel/p2i/barabar_4.php

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhauli

4. http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/s/019pho000001003u0330b000.html

5. www.studyblue.com

6. http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/dhauli/re01.html

Sustainable Development Goals and India

• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
• The 17 Goals build on the successes of the Millennium Development Goals, while including new areas such as climate change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace and justice, among other priorities.
• The goals are interconnected – often the key to success on one will involve tackling issues more commonly associated with another.
• The SDGs work in the spirit of partnership and pragmatism to make the right choices now to improve life, in a sustainable way, for future generations.
• They provide clear guidelines and targets for all countries to adopt in accordance with their own priorities and the environmental challenges of the world at large.

The SDGs are an inclusive agenda. They tackle the root causes of poverty and unite us together to make a positive change for both people and planet. “Poverty eradication is at the heart of the 2030 Agenda, and so is the commitment to leave no-one behind,” UNDP Administrator Achim Steiner said. “The Agenda offers a unique opportunity to put the whole world on a more prosperous and sustainable development path. In many ways, it reflects what UNDP was created for.”

The Goals

Goal 1: No Poverty

Targets

• By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions.
• Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable.
• By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance.
• By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters.
• Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources, including through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and predictable means for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in all its dimensions.
• Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels, based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions.

Goal 2: Zero Hunger

Targets

• By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round
• By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons
• By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment
• By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality
• By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed
• Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular least developed countries
• Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round
• Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility.

Goal 3: Good Health and Well Being

Targets

• By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births
• By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births
• By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases
• By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being
• Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol
• By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents
• By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes
• Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all
• By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination
• Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate
• Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and noncommunicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which affirms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to medicines for all
• Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed countries and small island developing States
• Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks

Goal 4: Quality Education

Targets

• By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning outcomes
• By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education
• By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university
• By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship
• By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations
• By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy
• By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development
• Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, nonviolent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all
• By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries
• By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing states

Goal 5: Gender Equality

Targets

• End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
• Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation
• Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation
• Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate
• Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decisionmaking in political, economic and public life
• Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences
• Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws
• Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women
• Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels

Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

Targets

• By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
• By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations
• By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
• By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity
• By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
• By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
• By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies
• Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management

Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

Target

• By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services
• By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix
• By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency
• By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology
• By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support

Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

Targets

• Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries
• Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors
• Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services
• Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production, with developed countries taking the lead
• By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value
• By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training
• Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms
• Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment
• By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
• Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all
• Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries
• By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization

Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

Targets

• Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and trans-border infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all
• Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise industry’s share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries
• Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration into value chains and markets
• By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities
• Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending
• Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States 18
• Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial diversification and value addition to commodities
• Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020

Goal 10: Reduce Inequalities

Targets

• By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of the population at a rate higher than the national average
• By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status
• Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation, policies and action in this regard
• Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively achieve greater equality
• Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and strengthen the implementation of such regulations
• Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decision-making in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver more effective, credible, accountable and legitimate institutions
• Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies
• Implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, in accordance with World Trade Organization agreements
• Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and programmes
• By 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent

Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

Targets

• By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums
• By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and older persons
• By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries
• Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage
• By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations
• By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management
• By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities
• Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning
• By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels
• Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local materials

Goal 12: Responsible Production and Consumption

Targets

• Implement the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries
• By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources
• By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses
• By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment
• By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse
• Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle
• Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities
• By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature
• Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production
• Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
• Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities

Goal 13: Climate Actions

Targets

• Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries
• Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning
• Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning
• Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible
• Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities

Goal 14: Life Below Water

Targets

• By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution
• By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans
• Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels
• By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics
• By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information
• By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation
• By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism
• Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries
• Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets
• Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing international law as reflected in UNCLOS, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of The Future We Want

Goal 15: Life on land

Targets

• By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements
• By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally
• By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world
• By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development
• Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species
• Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed
• Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products
• By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species
• By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts
• Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems
• Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation
• Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities

Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions

Targets

• Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere
• End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children
• Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all
• By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime
• Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms
• Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels
• Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels
• Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance
• By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration
• Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements
• Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation, for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime
• Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable development

Goal 17: Partnership for the Goals

Targets

Finance

• Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection
• Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 per cent of ODA/GNI to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries ODA providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries
• Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources
• Assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring, as appropriate, and address the external debt of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress
• Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries

Technology

• Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology facilitation mechanism
• Promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed
• Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology

Capacity building

• Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-building in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the sustainable development goals, including through North-South, South-South and triangular cooperation

Trade

• Promote a universal, rules-based, open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system under the World Trade Organization, including through the conclusion of negotiations under its Doha Development Agenda
• Significantly increase the exports of developing countries, in particular with a view to doubling the least developed countries’ share of global exports by 2020
• Realize timely implementation of duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting basis for all least developed countries, consistent with World Trade Organization decisions, including by ensuring that preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from least developed countries are transparent and simple, and contribute to facilitating market access

Systemic issues

• Policy and institutional coherence
  
• Enhance global macroeconomic stability, including through policy coordination and policy coherence
• Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development
• Respect each country’s policy space and leadership to establish and implement policies for poverty eradication and sustainable development
• Multi-stakeholder partnerships
• Enhance the global partnership for sustainable development, complemented by multi-stakeholder partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources, to support the achievement of the sustainable development goals in all countries, in particular developing countries
• Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships, building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships
• Data, monitoring and accountability
• By 2020, enhance capacity-building support to developing countries, including for least developed countries and small island developing States, to increase significantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts
• By 2030, build on existing initiatives to develop measurements of progress on sustainable development that complement gross domestic product, and support statistical capacity-building in developing countries