Author: Explains

Area of interest : North India, Deccan India & South India

 

 

Political situation became complex with the passing away of the Guptas and the demise of the Vakataka rulers. Vassals of the Guptas became independent in the North.

In the Deccan and far South too multiplicity of powers was witnessed.

NORTH INDIA

I. Political Background

Harshavardhana (590 AD to 648 AD) –

The fall of the Gupta rulers paved the way for domination of the Later Guptas, Maukharis and Pushyabhutis in the North. Harsha, though a Pushyabhuti ruler of Thaneswar ruled from Kanauj, which was originally the seat of Maukharis, with whom he contracted a marriage alliance. Harsha is celebrated as last ‘Hindu’ ruler in the North post the Gupta era.

 

II. Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Kadambari	Banabhatta	Romantic Sanskrit Novel	Romantic attachment between Chandrapeeda and Kadambari
Harshacharita	Banabhatta	Harsha’s biography in Sanskrit	An account of Harsha’s ancestry and his early life	Harsha
Priyadarshika	Harsha	Sanskrit play		Harsha
Nagananda	Harsha	Sanskrit play		Harsha
Ratnavali	Harsha	Sanskrit play	About a princess Ratnavali and a great King Udayan. One of the first reference of Holi found in the text	Harsha
Mahaviracharita	Bhavabhuti	Sanskrit play	Based on the early life of Rama	Yashovarman of Kannauj
Malatimadhava	Bhavabhuti	Sanskrit play	Love story between Malati and Madhava	Yashovarman of Kannauj

 

III. Religion

All religions were patronized under Harshavardhana’s reign. He was a Shaivite, but later Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.

Hiuen Tsang who visited Harshavardhana’s empire noted Buddhism was declining in India while Brahmanism was on rise.

 

IV. Art and Architecture

The art and architectural contributions of Harsha’s period are very few and mostly followed the Guptas. Harshavardhana’s realm is associated with construction of numerous stupas and monasteries. Harsha patronised the Nalanda University by his liberal endowments.

The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.

Lakshamana temple, Sirpur

• The Lakshamana temple is located in the village Sirpur of Chattisgarh.
• It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu

 

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DECCAN INDIA

I. Political Background

The late sixth century is marked by rise of Badami Chalukyas around the North Eastern part of Karnataka. The empire was founded by Pulakesin I. Pulakesin II (610 – 642 AD ) is considered the greatest ruler of the house.

 

II. Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Aihole Prasasti	Ravi Kirti	Pulakesin II’s eulogy	Mentions defeat of Harshavardhana by Pulekesin II when Harsha tried expanding towards the Deccan	Pulakesin II
Vikramankadevacharitam	Bilhana		An epic in honor of Vikramaditya VI	Western Chalukyan ruler, Vikramaditya VI

 

III. Religion

Chalukyans were both Vaishanavas and Shaivites but had a greater inclination towards Vaishnavism and Jainism. Nonetheless, they patronized all religions.

 

IV. Architecture

A. Caves

Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.

B. Temples

Chalukyan temples are found in 3 places – Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal.

Badami – Badami cave temples are a complex of 6 temples – 4 Hindu, 1 Jain & 1 possibly Buddhist.

Cave 3 – Vishnu image

Aihole – Ladkhan temple, Durga temple and Ravana Phadi Temple

Durga temple

• It is an apsidal temple of 550 AD. The apsidal shape is similar to the shape of a Buddhist chaitya.
• Temple has an open pillared verandah serving as pradakshinapatha instead of a dark ambulatory path.
• Temple shows improvements in shikhara development as compared to the Gupta period.

 

Ravana Phadi Temple

• Ravana Phadi is a rock cut cave with distinct sculptures made during the Chalukyan era.
• Among numerous sculptures is the Goddess Durga is portrayed in the carving. She appears to be slaying Mahishasura (panel above).

 

Pattadakal – This temple complex has 10 temples – 4 Dravida style, 4 in Nagara style, 1 Vesara style & 1 Jain Sanctuary. The Papanath temple is the Nagara style temple.

Virupaksha Temple

• Largest and grandest temple in Pattadakal
• Built in 8^th Century by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband’s (Vikramaditya II’s ) victory over Pallava ruler.

 

 

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SOUTH INDIA

 

I. Political Background

The Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas. After the fall of the Satavahanas in third century AD, they became independent. They ruled in the Tondaimandalam area with Kachipuram as their capital. The 7^th Century marked the rise of great rulers like Mahendravarman, Narasimhavarman I and Rajasimha. The Pallava rule reached its zenith under these rulers.

 

II. Literature and Language

 

Work	Author	Type	Theme
Mattavilasa Prahasana	Mahendravarman I	Sanskrit	Means the ‘delight of the drunkards’. Sanskrit farse on Buddhist and Kapalika ascetics
Kiratarjuniya	Bharavi	Sanskrit	Simhavishnu
Devaram	Nayanars	Tamil	Saiva literature
Nalayradivyaprabandam	Alvars	Tamil	Vaishnava literature

 

III. Religion

The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.

A. Hinduism

The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. Brahmanism and Brahmins were patronized by the rulers. The Pallava period witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism.

Bhakti Cult

The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. Apar and Sambandar were Shaivite bhakti saints who contributed immensely to the growth of Shaivism.

B. Buddhism and Jainism

Increased patronage to Hinduism and revival by Bhakti movement led to decline of Buddhism and Jainism.

 

IV. Architecture

A. Temples

This era is significant for temple building activities as the Dravidian style of temple architecture began. The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples out of rocks. We see a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas which culminated in structural temples. The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in 4 stages.

Stage I – Mahendra phase

This stage sees the development of Pallava rock-cut temples under Mahendravarman I. They were built in many places. The most important among them are Pallavaram, Mamandur, Mahendravadi, Vallam and Thalavanur.

 

Pallavaram Caves

Stage II – Mamallapuram phase

The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and mandapas found at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram). The name ‘Mammalapuram’ is derived from Narshimahavarman’s name ‘Mamalla’ which means the ‘great wrestler’.

There are 5 Rathas – Dharmaraj Ratha, Bhim Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Draupadi Ratha, Nakul Sahdev. These rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signify 5 different styles of temple architecture. Dharmaraja Rath is the largest and it’s considered a precursor for the Dravidian style.

Rathas of Mahabalipuram

• The South saw the emergence of Dravida style of architecture. Earliest Dravida style is visible at Mahabalipuram where during the Pallava period were constructed different rock cut structures called rathas.
• Main shrine has a square ground plan
• The superstructure above the shrine instead of having a shikhara, has horizontal platforms each placed one above the other with the size receding upwards. This is called a vimana.
• Constructed under the patronage of Mahendravarman I and Narsimhavarman I.

The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The most popular of these mandapas are Varaha Madapam, Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and the Panchpandava Caves.

 

Panchpandava Caves

Stage III – Rajasimha phase

This stage witnesses the evolution of structural temples in South India. These temples were built by using the soft sand rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of the early structural temples of the Pallavas.

Shore Temple

• The Shore temple is located in Mamallapuram.
• Its name is credited to its presence at the shore of Bay of Bengal.
• Built by Rajasimha.
• Made up of granite
• A Shaiva temple but also has a Vaishnava shrine

Kailasanatha Temple

• This temple is the oldest structure in Kanchipuram.
• Located in Tamil Nadu, it is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• Dravidian style temple.
• Built by Rajasimha.

Stage IV – Nandivarman phase

The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple and Muktheeswara temple at Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture.

Vaikunda Perumal Temple

• Dedicated to Lord Vishnu
• Dravidian style

 

V. Art

The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture. Apart from the sculptures found in temples, an ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallpuram remains an important monument.

The Descent of the Ganga or Arjun’s penance remains the most important sculpture.

Descent of Ganga/ Arjun’s penance

 

• Made of a monolithic rock
• Found in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu
• Identified as Bhagiratha’s bringing Ganga down from the matted locks of Shiva
• It is also identified as Arjun’s penance
• Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

 

The Sittannavasal jain paintings belonged to the period of Pallavas.

 

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References and image credits:

1. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/history-vardhana-society.htm
2. http://www.indianetzone.com/35/features_pala_sculpture_indian_sculpture.htm
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty#Architecture
4. http://www.cpreecenvis.nic.in/Database/AiholeCaveorRavanaPhadiCave_2838.aspx
5. NCERTs
6. NIOS
7. CCRT site

National Income Accounting 

National Income Accounting refers to the practice of calculating the output of an economy. It helps in assessing how the economy is doing. Some of the most standard identities used are GDP, GNP, National Income, etc. We will be studying those in detail once we cover the basics.

Since GDP is the most important identity and all other identities are derived from it, we will cover it first.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced within a ‘domestic territory’ in a specific time period. As evident, it is tied to a specific territory – a country’s border irrespective of the person producing it. That person could be a citizen or a foreign national.

Let’s take a hypothetical economy that produces 10 cars. The manufacturer purchases all components like tyres, glass, etc for Rs. 40, pays rent for Rs. 30 and pays labor for Rs. 10. Finally, sells the car for Rs. 100.

The GDP for this economy will be 10X100 = 1000. We didn’t include the cost of components like tyres, glass, etc because they were not final goods in themselves. They were consumed in the manufacturing of cars.

The domestic (economic) territory includes 4:

(i) Territory lying within the political frontiers, including territorial waters of the country.

(ii) Ships and aircrafts operated by the residents of the country between two or more countries.

(iii) Fishing vessels, oil and natural gas rigs and floating platforms operated by the residents of a country in the international waters or engaged in extraction in areas where the country has exclusive rights of operation. For example, fishing boats operated by Indian fishermen in the international waters of the Indian Ocean.

(iv) Embassies, consulates and military establishments of the country located abroad.

Value Added Method: The sum of the value of all final goods and services produced.

Let’s suppose there are only kind of production process taking place in the economy. they are the farmers growing grapes and wine producer. The farmer need only human labour to grow grapes. The farmers sell a part of the produced grapes to the wine manufacturers. The manufacturer uses grapes as inputs to produce wine.

Let’s further assume that in a given year farmer grows grape worth of Rs 1000. Out of this, he sells Rs 500 worth of grapes to the wine manufacturer. The wine manufacturer using grapes as input produces wine worth of Rs 1500.

What will be the total value added in this entire process?

The farmer grows grapes of Rs 1000 which will be added to total value added since that’s the final output produced by the farmers.

The baker used grapes worth Rs 500 as an input to produce wine worth of Rs 1500. The input used by the baker must be subtracted from the final output of wine produced by him (1500-500=1000). The reason for the deduction is that, we have already included the value of grapes produced by the farmer in the value added. If we now again include this in calculating value added we commit the mistake of Double counting- counting a product twice while calculating final output.

Hence the net value added for the economy will be contribution of the farmer (1000) + net contribution of the wine manufacturer (1000) = Rs 2000.

The raw materials that a firm buys from another firm which are completely used up in the process of production are called ‘intermediate goods’. Therefore,

The value added of a firm = Value of production of the firm – Value of intermediate goods used by the firm.

The value added of a firm is distributed among its four factors of production, namely, labour, capital, entrepreneurship and land. Therefore wages, interest, profits and rents paid out by the firm must add up to the value added of the firm.

Income Method: The sum of all incomes accruing to factors of production, i.e., Rent, Interest, Profit and Wages.

The sum of final expenditures in the economy must be equal to the incomes received by all the factors of production taken together (final expenditure is the spending on final goods, it does not include spending on intermediate goods). This follows from the simple idea that the revenues earned by all the firms put together must be distributed among the factors of production as salaries, wages, profits, interest earnings and rents.

Expenditure Method: The sum of consumer’s expenditure, net investment, and government expenditure on goods and services.

The expenditure method looks at the demand side of the GDP. In this method we add the final expenditures incurred by all the firms in the economy. in the farmer wine grower example, the value of output in the economy by expenditure method will be calculated in the following way.  

Final expenditure is that part of the expenditure which does not count intermediate inputs. In our example, the Rs 500 worth of grapes that the wine manufacturer buys from the farmer will not be included in final expenditure. The aggregate value of output of the economy is Rs 1500 (final expenditure received by the wine manufacturer) + Rs 500 (final expenditure received by the farmer) = Rs 2000.  

Firms make final expenditure on the following accounts:

C, consumption expenditure incurred by the firms

I, Investment expenditure incurred by firms on capital goods

G, expenditure incurred by government on the purchase of final goods and services produced by the firms

X, Exports revenues earned by firms by selling its goods and services abroad

Sum total of final consumption, investment, government and exports expenditures received by the firms ≡ C + I + G + X

Circular Flow of Money and Methods of Calculating National Income

We will discuss a simple economic model depicting how money flows through the economy.

 

 

 

Money changes hand from one sector to another.

Companies/Firms use 4 kinds of inputs that are used in the production of goods and services in order to make an economic profit. These 4 inputs are land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship and are known as factors of productions.

In the first stage, the Household sector provides the factors of production to the Business firms.
In the second stage, the Business firms pay back in monetary terms to the Household sector in the form of Wages, Rent, Interest and Profits.
In the third stage, the money received by household is spent on the goods and services produced by the firms in the form of consumption expenditure (C).

Thus, we see, that money flows from business firms to households and then it flows from Household to firms. This money flow is called circular flow of income.

Saving and Investment in the Circular Flow

Along with consumption, the households also save(S) part of their money.
When Households save, their expenditure on purchase of goods and services decline. The decline in the purchase will result in a decline in money received by firms. This will result in less money flow to the household as the firms will reduce hiring and production operations. Thus, saving act as a leakage from the economic system.
But the important question to ask is, where will savings go in the economy?
The savings in the economy does not lead to any reduction in aggregate spending and income as the savings flows back into the economic system through Financial Markets (Banks, Stock markets, insurance etc.)
From Financial Markets, the savings flows back to the Business firms who borrow them and invest it into new forms of investments.
Thus, the saving which is a leakage in the system also flows back into the system through investment by a firm which acts as injections.

Government Sector in the Circular Flow

Government affects the economy in a number of ways. The main components of government intervention are in the form of taxes(T), spending and borrowings(G).
The money flow from Households and firms to the government is in the form of taxes.
The other form of money flow from Households and firms to government is in the form of Borrowings through financial markets.
The Government pays back to households and firms in the form of provision of public goods like health, education, Policing, National Defence etc.

Because the money circulates, it leads to the following methods of GDP calculations.

The Product or Value Added Method

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When we consider an actual economy, the Value Added Method is used but things get more complicated.

First, the concept of factor cost, basic prices, and market prices is introduced.

Factor cost refers to the sum of the factor costs incurred during the process of production of final goods and services by the producer.

Basic prices refer to the price after accounting for production taxes and subsidies. When we add Net Production Taxes(Production taxes – Production subsidies), we get basic prices.

Market prices refer to the amount receivable by the producer from the purchaser for a unit of a good or service produced as output minus any tax payable. We get this price by adding Net Product Taxes(Product taxes – Product subsidies)

This is how it translates –

Gross Value Added (GVA) at basic prices = GVA at factor cost + Production taxes – Production subsidies
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at market = GVA at market prices = GVA at basic prices + Product taxes – Product subsidies

Second, we come to the concept of constant prices and current prices.

We need to measure GDP by discounting the effect of inflation in the economy to arrive at real numbers of how the growth has been. When our reference year is a base year, we call it GPD at constant prices while this year’s GDP is referred to as GDP at current prices. Recently, the base year was updated to 2011-12.

Change in methodology of calculating GDP

India’s Central Statistical Office (CSO) introduced the new series of National Accounts Statistics (NAS) with the base year 2011-12, replacing the earlier series with 2004-05 as the base year. This is a routine matter for the CSO – as with statistical offices of most countries – to change the base year of the NAS periodically to account for structural changes in the economy, relative prices, and to replace older survey data with newer ones to better capture the economic activities. This time around the revision also had another objective, that is, to update the underlying methodology of NAS to the most recent international guidelines, namely, the UN System of National Accounts, 2008 (SNA 2008).

The following changes were made by the CSO while calculating GDP:

Replacing GDP at factor cost and GDP at market price with gross value added at basic prices and GDP respectively.

Estimating GDP of private corporate sector directly from the audited balance sheets, following an enterprise approach replacing the earlier used establishment approach.

Using private corporate sector for estimating the manufacturing sector GVA, by discarding the earlier usage of Index of Industrial Production (IIP) and Annual Survey of Industries (ASI).

Further, the GDP structure is also different now. While the public sector share in GDP remains unchanged, the share of private sector corporates is higher in new series by some 11 percent and the share of unorganised sector declined from 56 to 44 percent.

The Controversy

Historically, the private corporate sector was small. However, since the last three decades there is a phenomenon growth in the number of registered companies ranging from services to financial sector. But their contribution to the Indian economy is mostly unknown as they mostly don not files their returns and audited balance sheets with Registrar of Companies. Similarly, unorganised sector is vastly underestimated in the new series.

The new series, in a first, has estimated PCS’s GDP directly using company balance sheets obtained from Ministry of Corporate Affair’s (MCA) new database of about 500,000 companies for just two years (2011-12 and 2012-13).  

MCA database has two sets of problem.

• Aggregate revenue estimates from company balance sheets are significantly different from those obtained from disaggregated revenue data, affecting the level as well as the growth rates of GVA in PCS.
• Since the number of companies in the MCA database plummeted to 300,000 – or, by 40 per cent – in 2013-14 and beyond, applying the blowing-up factor prepared with the smaller number of companies and blowing it up to the universe of over 900,000 companies, could have, one suspects, potentially over-estimated the GVA in the subsequent years, affecting the growth rates. Therefore, critics wonder if the remedy of using the huge MCA database has unwittingly proved to be worse than the disease.

The new methodology seems to have particularly affected the manufacturing sector estimates. The sector’s share in GDP has risen to 17-18 per cent, from 14-15 per cent earlier; its growth rate is systematically diverging from that based on both IIP and ASI

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References in Government Reports

The Central Statistics Office brings a document on QUARTERLY ESTIMATES OF
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT. Though such level of detail is not required from an exam perspective, its good for conceptual clarity.

A sample can be seen here.

http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_release/nad_pr_2eni_28feb18_0.pdf

Advanced Estimates are predictions based on past trend. Revised Estimates are a review of Advanced Estimates taking into account the actual trend of expenditure, not past trend.

Statement 1 is as follows –

Notice the terms, PFCE, GFCE, GFCF.

These correspond to Private Final Consumption Expenditure, Government Final Consumption Expenditure and Gross Fixed Capital Formation respectively.

 

In the following chart, you can see sectors growth.

 

CSO also releases various graphs for trend analysis.

The Economic Survey also comes out with interesting trends on GDP.

 

 

The Indian desert is also known as the Thar Desert or the Great Indian Desert.

Location and Extent:

• Location – To the north-west of the Aravali hills.
• It covers Western Rajasthan and extends to the adjacent parts of Pakistan.

Geological History and Features

• Most of the arid plain was under the sea from Permo-Carboniferous period and later it was uplifted during the Pleistocene age. This can be corroborated by the evidence available at wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer (The approximate age of the wood fossils is estimated to be 180 million years).
• The presence of dry beds of rivers (eg Saraswati) indicates that the region was once fertile.
• Geologically, the desert area is a part of peninsular plateau region but on the surface it looks like an aggradational plain.

Chief Characteristics:

• The desert proper is called the Marusthali (dead land) as this region has an arid climate with low vegetation cover. In general, the Eastern part of the Marushthali is rocky, while its western part is covered by shifting sand dunes.
• Bagar: Bagar refers to the semi-desert area which is west of Aravallis. Bagar has a thin layer of sand. It is drained by Luni in the south whereas the northern section has a number of salt lakes.
• The Rajasthan Bagar region has a number of short seasonal streams which originate from the Aravallis. These streams support agriculture in some fertile patches called Rohi.
• Even the most important river ‘Luni’ is a seasonal stream. The Luni originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and flows towards the southwest into the Rann of Kutch.
• The region north of Luni is known as the Thali or sandy plain.
• There are some streams which disappear after flowing for some distance and present a typical case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa e.g. the Sambhar Lake. The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main source of obtaining salt.

• Well pronounced desert land features:
  • Sand dunes: It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes, transverse dunes and barchans. [Barchan – A crescent-shaped sand dune, the horns of which point away from the direction of the dominant wind; Longitudinal dune – A sand dune with its crest running parallel to the direction of prevailing wind]

• Mushroom rocks
• Shifting dunes (locally called Dhrians)
• Oasis (mostly in its southern part)

 

1. Planning Commission
2. NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India)
3. Mobilization of Resources: National Development Council; Finance Commission; States Finance Commission