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GS Paper: GS1

  • Heatwaves in India: A Serious Concern

    Heatwave

    Central Idea

    • Heat waves have become a major concern for India this year. The scorching summer heat has started prematurely, as per the recent IMD reports. If the record temperatures of the recent past are any indication, the heat wave is likely to become more intense. Rising temperatures lead to several health problems, from dehydration and heat exhaustion to more severe conditions like heatstroke. They also affect the economy and the environment.

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    What is Heat wave?

    • A heatwave is a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather.
    • Heatwaves usually last for several days or weeks and can occur in both dry and humid climates. They are characterized by temperatures that are significantly higher than the average for a particular region during that time of year.
    • This is because climate change is causing a rise in global temperatures. As the planet heats up, it leads to more extreme weather events, such as heat waves. Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.

    Heatwaves in India

    • In India Heat waves typically occur from March to June, and in some rare cases, even extend till July.
    • On an average, five-six heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.
    • Single events can last weeks, occur consecutively, and can impact large population.
    • Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.

    Some of the hottest summers on record in recent years that India has experienced

    • In May 2016, Phalodi in Rajasthan registered 51 degrees Celsius, the highest temperature ever recorded in the country.
    • In 2021, India saw its hottest day on May 22, with the temperature touching 48 degrees Celsius in Barmer, also in Rajasthan.
    • In 2022, Jaipur experienced a severe heatwave. Rajasthan’s capital recorded 45 degrees Celsius in April a record for the city for the month.
    • Delhi, Agra, Pilani and Rohtak are among the well-known hot cities in India, where temperatures, of late, have gone up to 43 degrees Celsius in early summer

    Link: Climate change and Heat waves

    • Rising heat waves: Climate change is directly linked to the increase in the frequency, intensity, and duration of heatwaves around the world.
    • More severe and more frequent: As the Earth’s climate continues to warm, heatwaves are becoming more severe and occurring more frequently.
    • Global warming: This is because global warming is causing changes in the atmosphere, such as increased greenhouse gas concentrations, which trap heat and cause temperatures to rise.
    • For instance: Climate change is also causing heatwaves to last longer. A study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters found that heatwaves are lasting an average of 2.5 days longer than they did in the middle of the 20th century.

    Heatwave

    The Socio-economic impact of heat waves

    1. Impact on Health: Heat-related illnesses, such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke, are becoming more common, particularly among vulnerable groups such as the elderly, children, and outdoor workers.
    • In addition, heat waves can exacerbate existing health problems, such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
    1. Impact on the environment
    • One of the biggest problems is the depletion of water resources:
    • Water sources are drying up as temperatures rise, leading to crises in many parts of the country.
    • As people try to keep cool, they use more air conditioning, increasing electricity use. This leads to an increase in the use of fossil fuels, which significantly contributes to air pollution.
    1. Impact on agriculture:
    • Impact on environment in turn, leads to agricultural problems, with crops failing and farmers struggling to make a living.
    • Given that around 40 per cent of India’s population is engaged in agriculture, this is a significant concern.
    • Reports are already coming from Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh that the early heatwave has affected the growth of wheat crops and is expected to negatively affect the crop to the tune of 20 per cent.
    1. Impact on growth:
    • The healthcare costs associated with heat-related illnesses can be significant, particularly for vulnerable groups who may not have access to affordable healthcare.
    • In addition, heat waves can lead to a decrease in worker productivity, which can impact economic growth.

    Heatwave

    What can be done to deal with such problems?

    • Increase public awareness: People need to be educated about the impact of rising temperatures on their health, the environment, and the economy. This can be done through public campaigns, schools, and the media.
    • Increase the use of renewable energy: India has already made significant progress in this area. However, much remains to be done. The government could incentivise individuals and businesses to invest in renewable energy, such as solar panels. This would help reduce the impact of rising temperatures, create new jobs, and stimulate economic growth.
    • Improving water management: This could include introducing more efficient irrigation systems, better rainwater harvesting, and using recycled water for non-potable purposes. This would help to conserve water resources and reduce the impact of rising temperatures on agriculture.
    • Investing in infrastructure that can cope with extreme temperatures: This could include the construction of roads and buildings that are designed to withstand high temperatures, as well as the development of more efficient cooling systems that use less energy.

    Heatwave

    Conclusion

    • The rising heat wave in India is a serious concern that needs to be addressed urgently. The impacts of rising temperatures on human health, the environment, and the economy are significant. However, with the right strategies in place, it is possible to mitigate the impact of rising temperatures and ensure a sustainable future for the country.

    Mains Question

    Q. Climate change is exacerbating the problem of heat waves. In this backdrop discuss its socioeconomic impact and what measures can be done to tackle this problem?

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  • ASI finds 1,300-yr-old Buddhist Stupa in Odisha

    stupa

    The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) stumbled upon a 1,300-year-old stupa right in the middle of a Khondalite mining site in Odisha’s Jajpur district.

    About the Stupa

    • The stupa could be 4.5-meter tall and initial assessment showed it may belong to the 7th or 8th
    • It was found at Parabhadi which is situated near Lalitagiri, a major Buddhist complex, having a large number of stupas and monasteries.
    • The newly discovered stupa was possibly disfigured in an earlier period.

    Khondalite

    stupa

    • Khondalite is a foliated metamorphic rock.
    • It is also called Bezwada Gneiss and Kailasa Gneiss.
    • It was named after the Khond tribe of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh because well-formed examples of the rock were found in the inhabited hills of these regions of eastern India.

     

    Back2Basics: Lalitagiri Buddhist Complex

    stupa

    • Lalitagiri is a major Buddhist complex in the state of Odisha.
    • The complex is home to stupas, ‘esoteric’ Buddha images, and monasteries (viharas), which is the oldest site in the region.
    • Significant finds at this complex include Buddha’s relics. Tantric Buddhism was practiced at this site.
    • Together with the Ratnagiri and Udayagiri sites a short distance away, Lalitagiri is part of the “Diamond Triangle”.
    • It used to be thought that one or all of these were the large Pushpagiri Vihara known from ancient records, but this has now convincingly located at a different site.

    Stupa Architecture

    stupa

    In the most basic sense, as an architectural representation of a sacred burial site, a stupa — no matter where it is located in the world or when it was built — has three fundamental features.

    • A hemispherical mound (anda) The anda’s domed shape (green highlights) recalls a mound of dirt that was used to cover the Buddha’s remains. As you might expect, it has a solid core and cannot be entered. Consistent with their symbolic associations, the earliest stupas contained actual relics of the Buddha; the relic chamber, buried deep inside the anda, is called the tabena. Over time, this hemispherical mound has taken on an even grander symbolic association: the mountain home of the gods at the center of the universe.
    • A square railing (harmika) The harmika (red highlights) is inspired by a square railing or fence that surrounded the mound of dirt, marking it as a sacred burial site.
    • A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (chattra) The chattra, in turn, was derived from umbrellas that were placed over the mound to protect it from the elements (purple highlights). Just as the anda’s symbolic value expanded over time, the central pillar that holds the umbrellas has come to represent the pivot of the universe, the axis along which the divine descends from heaven and becomes accessible to humanity. And the three circular umbrella-like disks represent the three Jewels, or Triantha, of Buddhism, which are the keys to a true understanding of the faith: (a) Buddha; (b) dharma (Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) sangha (monastic community).

    Around these three core building blocks were added secondary features.

    • Enclosure wall with decorated gateways (toranas) at the cardinal directions The wall — with its trademark three horizontal stone bars (in the top image) — surrounds the entire structure. The wall is marked in light blue highlights and the toranas in yellow.
    • A circular terrace (medhi) The terrace — surrounded by a similar three-bar railing — supports the anda and raises it off the ground (black highlights); it likely served as a platform for ritual circumambulation.

     

     

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  • Heat Waves and the anatomy behind

    heat

    The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has already started sensing the first signs of heat waves for this summer season.

    What is the news?

    • The IMD warned that the maximum temperatures over northwest, west, and central India would be 3-5° C higher than the long-term average in this week.
    • If the heat waves had played out, they would have been the earliest these regions would have experienced this deadly phenomenon.

    What are Heat Waves?

    • Heatwaves generally occur over India between March and June.
    • IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
    • Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.

    How are they formed?

    • Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
    • This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
    • On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
    • Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
    • Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
    • Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
    • A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
    • Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.

    Following criteria are used to declare heatwave:

    To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.

    (a) Based on Departure from Normal

    • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C

    (b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)

    • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≄ 45°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≄47°C

     

    Recent context: El Nino + heat waves

    • The last three years have been La Nina years, which has served as a precursor to 2023 likely being an El Nino
    • The El Nino is a complementary phenomenon in which warmer water spreads west-east across the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
    • As we eagerly await the likely birth of an El Nino this year, we have already had a heat wave occur over northwest India.
    • Heat waves tend to be confined to north and northwest India in El Nino years.

    Why do heat waves occur in the first place?

    • Heat waves are formed for one of two reasons: because warmer air is flowing in from elsewhere or because something is producing it locally.
    • Air is warmed locally when the air is warmed by higher land surface temperature or because the air sinking down from above is compressed along the way, producing hot air near the surface.

    How do different processes contribute to the formation of a heat wave?

    • The direction of air flowing in from the west-northwest, warming in the Middle East, and compression over mountains of Afghanistan and Pakistan cause warm air to enter India.
    • The warming Arabian Sea also contributes to the warming trend.
    • Upper atmospheric westerly winds control near-surface winds, which rotate faster than the planet itself.
    • Additionally, the lapse rate, or the rate at which temperatures cool from surface to upper atmosphere, is declining due to global warming.

    Regional occurrences

    • The other factors that affect the formation of heat waves are the age of the air mass and how far it has traveled.
    • The north-northwestern heatwaves are typically formed with air masses that come from 800-1,600 km away and are around two days old.
    • Heat waves over peninsular India on the other hand arrive from the oceans, which are closer (around 200-400 km) and are barely a day old.
    • As a result, they are on average less intense.

  • Key findings about Keeladi Excavation

    keeladi

    Central idea: Keeladi is an archaeological site that has been excavated by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology since 2014. Recent excavations here has pushed the Sangam age further back.

    About Keeladi

    keeladi

    • Keeladi is a tiny hamlet in the Sivaganga district in south Tamil Nadu.
    • It is about 12 km south-east to the temple city of Madurai and is located along the Vaigai River.
    • The excavations here from 2015 prove that an urban civilisation existed in Tamil Nadu in the Sangam age on the banks of the Vaigai River.

    How is Keeladi linked to Sangam age?

    • The Sangam age is a period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu which was believed to be from the third century BCE to the third century CE.
    • The name is derived from the renowned Sangam poets of Madurai from that time.

    Recent findings

    • In 2019, a TNSDA report dated the unearthed artefacts from Keeladi to a period between sixth century BCE and first century BCE.
    • Some samples sent for carbon dating in the US, dated back to 580 BCE.
    • The findings placed Keeladi artefacts about 300 years earlier than the previously believed third century BCE.

    Significance of the findings

    • Older than perceived: Recent finding at Keeladi has pushed the Sangam age to 800 BCE based on these archaeological findings.
    • Literary evidences: Keeladi, along with other Tamil Nadu sites which have over a thousand inscribed potsherds, clearly suggest the long survival of the script.
    • Substantial evidence to Sangam Age: It comes across as an industrious and advanced civilisation and has given evidence of urban life and settlements in TN during the Early Historic Period.
    • Another major civilisation: The unearthed Keeladi artefacts have led academics to describe the site as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilisation. It has all the characteristics of an urban civilisation, with brick structures, luxury items and proof of internal and external trade.
    • Filling in the cultural gaps: This could provide crucial evidence for understanding the missing links of the Iron Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) to the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments.

    Links with Indus Valley

    Ans. A lot of digging and study has to be done to establish the links between these two civilisations.

    • The findings have invited comparisons with the Indus Valley Civilisation while acknowledging the cultural gap of 1,000 years between the two places.
    • Till now, the gap is filled with Iron Age material in south India, which serve as residual links.
    • However, some of the symbols found in pot sherds of Keeladi bear a close resemblance to Indus Valley signs.

    What has been unearthed so far?

    • Pottery: Unearthing of heaps of pottery suggest the existence of a pottery making industry, mostly made of locally available raw materials.
    • Inscriptions: Over 120 potsherds containing Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been found.
    • Jewellery: There also existed a dyeing industry and a glass bead industry. Gold ornaments, copper articles, semi-precious stones, shell bangles, ivory bangles and ivory combs reflect the artistic, culturally rich and prosperous lifestyle of the Keeladi people.
    • Import of semiprecious stones: Agate and carnelian beads suggest import through commercial networks while terracotta and ivory dice, gamesmen and evidence of hopscotch have been unearthed revealing their pastime hobbies.

    Recent politicization of the excavation

    • The Keeladi site, since its discovery has been shrouded in controversies with several Dravidian and Left ideologues.
    • They claim that the archaeological finds prove that the Indus Valley Civilisation was a “Dravidian” culture and an independent “secular” Tamil civilisation.
    • The attempt to define the finds in narrow and racial terms is ideologically motivated to one, pump up Tamil exclusivist sentiments, and two, and challenge the view that sees India as one— unity in diversity.

     

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  • Dickinsonia Fossil found in Bhimbetka turns out to be decayed beehive

    bhim

    A Dickinsonia fossil found at Bhimbetka, previously believed to be one of the world’s earliest animals, and has been identified as a decayed beehive.

    About Bhimbetka

    bhim

    • The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that spans the prehistoric Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as well as the historic period.
    • It exhibits the earliest traces of human life in India and evidence of Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulian times.
    • It is located in the Raisen District in Madhya Pradesh about 45 kilometres (28 mi) south-east of Bhopal.
    • It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that consists of seven hills and over 750 rock shelters distributed over 10 km (6.2 mi).
    • At least some of the shelters were inhabited more than 100,000 years ago.
    • Some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters feature prehistoric cave paintings and the earliest are about 10,000 years old (c. 8,000 BCE), corresponding to the Indian Mesolithic.
    • These cave paintings show themes such as animals, early evidence of dance and hunting.
    • The Bhimbetka rock shelters were found by V S Wakankar 64 years ago. Since then, thousands of researchers have visited the site, but this rare fossil went undetected.

    What is Dickinsonia?

    bhim

    • Dickinsonia is an extinct genus of basal animal that lived during the late Ediacaran period in what is now Australia, Russia and Ukraine.
    • The individual Dickinsonia typically resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval.
    • Its affinities are presently unknown; its mode of growth is consistent with a stem-group bilaterian affinity, though some have suggested that it belongs to the fungi or even an “extinct kingdom”.
    • The discovery of cholesterol molecules in fossils of Dickinsonia lends support to the idea that Dickinsonia was an animal.

    Cambrian Explosion and Dickinsonia

    • The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ is the term given to the period of time in history when complex animals and other macroscopic organisms such as molluscs, worms, arthropods and sponges began to dominate the fossil record.
    • Researchers from Australian found the Dickinsonia fossil since its tissue contained molecules of cholesterol a type of fat that is the hallmark of animal life.

     

    Try this PYQ:

    Q. Which one of the following statements is correct?

    (a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora River

    (b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal River

    (c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada River

    (d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari River

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”2pwq42fb8z” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

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  • Can’t legislate on Women’s Marriage Age: Supreme Court

    marriage

    The Supreme Court has rejected a petition seeking a uniform minimum age of marriage for men and women stating that the matter is within the domain of the legislature and not the judiciary.

    Central idea: The minimum age of marriage, especially for women, has been a contentious issue.  It was evolved in the face of much resistance from religious and social conservatives.

    What laws govern marriage age in India?

    Following laws prescribe/mention 18 and 21 years as the minimum age of consent for marriage for women and men respectively:

    1. Special Marriage Act, 1954: It allows people from two different faith/religious backgrounds to come together in the bond of marriage
    2. Sarda Act, 1978: Named after its sponsor Harbilas Sarda, a judge and a member of Arya Samaj, was eventually amended in 1978 to prescribe 18 and 21 years as the age of marriage for a woman and a man, respectively.
    3. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: It provides that the minimum age of marriage is 21 years in case of males, and 18 years in case of females.

    Evolution of the idea: Age of Consent

    • The IPC enacted in 1860 criminalised sexual intercourse with a girl below the age of 10.
    • The provision of rape was amended in 1927 through The Age of Consent Bill, 1927, which declared that marriage with a girl under 12 would be invalid.
    • The law faced opposition from leaders including Lokmanya Tilak, who saw the British intervention as an attack to create rift within family intuitions in the name of equal rights.
    • A legal framework for the age of consent for marriage in India only began in the 1880s.

    Central idea: Attainment of Majority

    • The minimum age of marriage is distinct from the age of majority which is gender-neutral.
    • An individual attains the age of majority at 18 as per the Indian Majority Act, 1875.
    • The law prescribes a minimum age of marriage to essentially outlaw child marriages and prevents the abuse of minors.

    How this confers ‘Unequal Treatment’?

    • Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution guarantee the right to equality and the right to live with dignity.
    • They are clearly violated by having different legal age for men and women to marry, argue activists.

    Supreme Court rulings supportive to this

    • NALSA vs. Union of India, 2014: The Supreme Court while recognizing transgenders as the third gender said that justice is delivered with the “assumption that humans have equal value and should, therefore, be treated as equal, as well as by equal laws.”
    • Joseph Shine v Union of India, 2019: The Court decriminalized adultery and said that “a law that treats women differently based on gender stereotypes is an affront to women’s dignity.”

    Contention over different legal standards

    • No rationale behind: There is no reasoning in the law for having different legal standards of age for men and women to marry.
    • More of religious decree: The laws are a codification of custom and religious practices.
    • Stereotype for male dominance: The Law Commission consultation paper has argued that having different legal standards “contributes to the stereotype that wives must be younger than their husbands”.
    • Promotes premature marriage of girl child: Women’s rights activists have argued that the law also perpetuates the stereotype that women are more mature than men and therefore, can be allowed to marry sooner.
    • Motherhood complexities: An early age of marriage, and consequent early pregnancies, also have impacts on nutritional levels of mothers and their children, and their overall health and mental wellbeing.
    • Other factors: Early marriage age has latent outcomes such as early dropouts from school, deprivation from higher education etc.

    Why is the law being relooked at?

    • Prevalence of child marriage: Despite laws mandating minimum age and criminalizing sexual intercourse with a minor, child marriages are very prevalent in the country.
    • Bring gender-neutrality: From bringing in gender-neutrality to reduce the risks of early pregnancy among women, there are many arguments in favour of increasing the minimum age of marriage of women.
    • Protection from abuse: This will essentially outlaw premature girls marriages and prevent the abuse of minors.
    • Women empowerment: The decision would empower women who are cut off from access to education and livelihood due to an early marriage.

    Policy measures in this regard: Jaya Jaitly Committee

    • In June 2020, the Ministry of WCD set up a task force to look into the correlation between the age of marriage with issues of women’s nutrition, prevalence of anaemia, IMR, MMR and other social indices.
    • The committee was to look at the feasibility of increasing the age of marriage and its implication on women and child health, as well as how to increase access to education for women.

    Key recommendations

    • The committee has recommended the age of marriage be increased to 21 years, on the basis of feedback they received from young adults from 16 universities across the country.
    • The committee also asked the government to look into increasing access to schools and colleges for girls, including their transportation to these institutes from far-flung areas.
    • Skill and business training has also been recommended, as has sex education in schools.
    • The committee said these deliveries must come first, as, unless they are implemented and women are empowered, the law will not be as effective.

    Criticism of the move to raise the legal ages

    • Promote illegal marriages: Such legislation would push a large portion of the population into illegal marriages leading to non-institutional births.
    • Ineffectiveness of existing laws: Decrease in child marriages has not been because of the existing law but because of an increase in girls’ education and employment opportunities.
    • Unnecessary coercion: The law would end up being coercive, and in particular negatively impact marginalized communities, such as the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes, making them law-breakers.

    Way forward

    • Enacting Legislation: Establishing a Uniform Minimum Age of Marriage for Both Men and Women
    • Effective Implementation and Enforcement: Preventing Child Marriages and Gender-Based Discrimination
    • Addressing Root Causes: Improving Access to Education and Healthcare, Promoting Women’s Participation, and Reducing Gender-Based Violence and Discrimination
    • Coordinated Multi-Sectoral Approach: Involving the Government, Civil Society and religious scholars.

     

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  • Cooling Earth with Moon Dust

    moon

    The article introduces the idea of using Moon dust to cool the Earth and explores the feasibility and potential risks associated with the proposal.

    Moonlight cooling of Earth

    • The idea of using lunar dust to cool the Earth’s temperature is based on a natural phenomenon called “moonlight cooling.”
    • When the Moon’s surface reflects the sun’s rays, it cools down rapidly after sunset.
    • Scientists believe that a thin layer of lunar dust could be used to create a similar effect on the Earth’s surface.
    • The proposal suggests launching a spacecraft to the Moon to collect dust particles, which would then be transported to the Earth’s atmosphere and released.

    Feasibility of the move

    • This is not a new idea. In fact, it has been proposed before as a way to combat global warming, and several studies have been conducted to explore its feasibility.
    • One study published in the journal Earth’s Future estimated that the technique could reduce the Earth’s temperature by 1.5 degrees Celsius, which is a significant amount in the context of climate change.

    Risks and Drawbacks

    • Health concerns: The dust could harm the environment or respiratory health if it is not properly controlled.
    • Threats to aviation: The particles are abrasive and could damage aircraft engines or other machinery if they were to fall to the ground.
    • Feasibility and cost: Collecting enough dust to make a significant impact on the Earth’s temperature would require a significant investment of resources, including launching multiple spacecraft to the Moon.

    Frankenstein’s Monster Analogy

    • The article draws a comparison between the proposed use of moon dust and the story of Frankenstein’s monster, in which a scientist creates a monster that ultimately causes destruction and chaos.
    • The analogy suggests that the use of moon dust could have unintended consequences that are difficult to predict, and that such large-scale climate interventions should be approached with caution.

     

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  • What is Special Marriage Act, 1954?

    marriage

    Central idea: An actress recently held her interfaith-marriage under the Special Marriage Act, 1954.

    What is the Special Marriage Act?

    • The Special Marriage Act of 1954 (SMA) was passed by the Parliament on October 9, 1954.
    • It governs a civil marriage where the state sanctions the marriage rather than the religion.
    • The minimum age to get married under the SMA is 21 years for males and 18 years for females.

    Why was it enacted?

    Ans. Interfaith/ Inter-caste Marriages

    • Issues of personal law such as marriage, divorce, adoption are governed by religious laws that are codified.
    • These laws, such as the Muslim Marriage Act, 1954, and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, require either spouse to convert to the religion of the other before marriage.
    • However, the SMA enables marriage between inter-faith or inter-caste couples without them giving up their religious identity or resorting to conversion.

    Why is it ‘Special’?

    • Detachment from the family: Once married as per the secular law, under Section 19 of the Act, any member of an undivided family who professes the Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh or Jain religion shall be deemed to affect their severance from the family.
    • Losing inherited property: This would affect rights, including the right to inheritance, of the persons choosing to marry under the SMA.

    Who can get married under the Special Marriage Act?

    • The applicability of the Act extends to the people of all faiths, including Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists, across India.
    • Some customary restrictions such as parties not being within degrees of a prohibited relationship still apply to couples under SMA.
    • In 1952, when the Bill was proposed, the requirement of monogamy was considered radical.
    • Section 4 of the SMA requires that at the time of marriage, “neither party has a spouse living” or is “incapable of giving a valid consent to it in consequence of unsoundness of mind”.

    What is the procedure for a civil marriage?

    • As per Section 5 of the Act, the parties to the marriage are required to give a notice, in writing, to a “Marriage Officer” of the district in which at least one of the parties has resided for at least 30 days immediately preceding the notice.
    • Before the marriage is solemnized, the parties and three witnesses are required to sign a declaration form before the Marriage Officer.
    • Once the declaration is accepted, the parties will be given a “Certificate of marriage” which is essentially proof of the marriage.

    Furore over such marriages

    Ans. Religious conversion has emerged as the practical way to cohabit as a couple, in a country where neither the inter-faith, inter-caste nor the live-in couples can earn societal approval.

    • As per some Personal laws, in order to get married conversion of religion to get equalized is the only way.
    • There are cases of being allegedly lured and honey-trapped by men and those girls now seeking their help to free themselves.
    • Interfaith marriages these days are believed to be a forced conversion of the women spouses.
    • Fundamentalists’ claims that men of a particular religion are trained on the intricacies of religious doctrine to allure other religion women for marriage in an attempt to finish off her religion.

     

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  • Tipu Sultan’s Contested Legacy

    tipu

    Central idea: The article examines the controversial nature of Tipu Sultan’s legacy and the differing opinions about his reign and his place in Indian history. It discusses the contrasting views of Tipu Sultan as a hero and patriot who fought against British colonialism, or as a tyrant who persecuted Hindus and Christians.

    Rise of Tipu Sultan

    • Tipu Sultan was born on November 10, 1750, in Devanahalli, present-day Bangalore.
    • His father was Hyder Ali, who rose through the ranks of the army of the Wodeyars, the Hindu rulers of Mysore.

    Rise to power

    • Hyder Ali seized power from the Wodeyars in 1761 and ruled for 20 years, a period in which the kingdom of Mysore had slowly expanded by capturing disputed areas at its borders.
    • During this time, Tipu was educated in both matters of statecraft and warcraft, participating in his first battle at the age of only 15.
    • When Hyder Ali died in 1782, Tipu’s primary motivation was to consolidate the territory he had inherited from his father.
    • Specifically, the rebellious provinces of Malabar, Kodagu, and Bednur, were crucial to Mysore’s strategic and economic interests.
    • His rule in these areas is what is often cited as proof of his bigotry and authoritarianism.

    Contribution to freedom struggle

    • In the course of India’s freedom struggle, Tipu Sultan became a symbol of resistance against British rule.
    • His death while defending his fortress of Srirangaptna against British armies in 1799 was valorised as the ultimate sacrifice for the motherland.

    Reforms carried out by Tipu

    Administrative reforms

    • Tipu Sultan also pioneered administrative and economic reforms.
    • He introduced new coins, started a new land revenue system in Mysore, as well as introduced sericulture or silkworm cultivation, which continues to employ many Kannadigas to date.
    • Furthermore, some claim that upon hearing of the plight of lower caste women who were not allowed to wear blouses, Tipu personally supplied them with cloth.

    Modernization of weaponry: Advent of Rockets

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    • Tipu is credited for the introduction of iron-cased rockets in warfare.
    • While rocket-like weapons had previously been used in War, Tipu’s army used what can be termed as the first modern war rockets in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
    • These rockets were used to devastating effects against much larger British armies, driving them to panic and disarray.
    • The British used Tipu’s models for their own rockets, which would go on to play an important role in the Napoleonic Wars.

    Scientific temper

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    • Tipu’s fascination with European culture was a result of what he saw while fighting Europeans.
    • Tipu wanted Mysore to be a modern rival of the European powers and made investments in technology accordingly.

    Why is Tipu branded as a tyrant?

    • Warfare in Tipu’s time was brutal and those who rebelled were dealt with an iron fist. It was common practice to set strong examples to forestall future opposition.
    • The punishments Tipu applied to rebels or conspirators included forced conversion and the transfer of people from their home territories to Mysore.
    • The forced removals occurred from both Kodagu and Malabar, the former as a response to continued resistance against Mysore rule– as a result of their resistance and perceived treachery in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
    • The right’s narrative of Tipu’s bigotry emphasizes Tipu’s militarism as well as his perceived attacks on “Hindu” rulers and subjects.

    Historian’s justification of Tipu’s actions

    • Tipu’s actions are questionable by today’s standards, they were commonplace in the 18th century among rulers of all faiths.
    • He was a tyrant, but his motivations were not necessarily religious zealotry.
    • Rather, he was a pragmatist who ruled within the accepted conventions of kingship and warfare at the time.
    • He undoubtedly ordered forced conversions in areas he annexed, Tipu also patronized various temples and Hindu shrines, including the Sri Ranganatha temple at Srirangapatna and the Math in Sringeri.
    • Both these actions were to solidify his position as a ruler — the former to crush dissidents and the latter to gain legitimacy among his largely Hindu subjects.

    Tipu’s legacy: looking at the past from the prism of the present

    • Today, there has been an increased spotlight on his autocratic tendencies and brutal repression in annexed territories, with an increased emphasis on his religion.
    • Both portrayals fall short, missing the complexity of Tipu’s character and material circumstances.

     

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  • Anti-encroachment drive in historic city of Mehrauli

    mehrauli

    The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) carried out an anti-encroachment drive in the nearby villages of Mehrauli and Ladha Sarai leaving hundreds of families in uncertainty about their future.

    History of Delhi

    • Purani Dilli, commonly referred to as Old Delhi, is a misnomer as the city’s history dates back to before the establishment of Shahjahanabad.
    • The oldest evidence of habitation in Delhi, dating back to the Iron Age (around 1100-800 BC), is the painted grey ware fragments found in Purana Quila.
    • Historians recognize seven cities of Delhi, from the 11th century onwards, namely Lalkot/Quila Rai Pithora/Mehrauli, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Firozabad, Shergarh (Old Fort), Shahjahanabad, and New Delhi.
    • However, depending on what is considered a city, this number can be as high as 11.

    In focus: City of Mehrauli

    • Mehrauli is widely considered to be the oldest ‘city’ of Delhi and is the oldest area of the metropolis to be continuously inhabited.
    • It was first built by a ruler called Anangpal II in the 11th century, and it was called Lalkot.
    • Later, it was known as ‘Quila Rai Pithora’ and was fortified by the Chauhans.
    • The Mamluk dynasty took control of the city in 1192, and Qutubudin Aibak, the first ruler of the dynasty, built the Qutub Minar and the Quwwat-al-Islam mosque (oldest mosque in North India).
    • In the following century, more buildings like tombs, step wells, palaces, and fortifications were constructed during the reigns of Iltutmish, Razia Sultan, and Alauddin Khilji.

    Continued relevance and inhabitation

    • Even as the newer cities came up and the seat of power shifted northwards, Mehrauli witnessed building activity as late as the Mughal and British periods.
    • Due to its location on the lap of the Aravallis hills, the area was preferred as a summer retreat.
    • Two Mughal summer palaces (Zafar Mahal and Jahaz Mahal) and a summer abode of Sir Thomas Metcalfe (Dilkhusha) are situated here.
    • Mehrauli lay on a historic trade route, as the number of sarais (Ladho Sarai, Ber Sarai, Neb Sarai) around the area would suggest. A sarai was a resthouse for weary travellers.

    Cultural significance of Mehrauli

    • Mehrauli is also a spiritual centre. Sufi saint Hazrat Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (1173 -1235 AD) was buried in the city and his dargah remains popular till date, across religious lines.
    • Some historians cite the dargah as a reason for the city surviving the test of time – despite power shifting elsewhere, the dargah remained a revered destination for pilgrims far and wide.
    • Another spiritual centre for the community is the Yogmaya mandir, believed to be one of the oldest in the city.
    • Yoginis (semi-divine deities) have been an integral part of Indian folklore and this temple dedicated to them is believed to have been constructed by the Pandavas.

    How it ended up in encroachments?

    • Like much of the rest of Delhi, the Partition brought many changes to Mehrauli too.
    • Many refugees from the West found sanctuary here. The city has also seen sectarian tensions.

     

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