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Subject: Climate Change

1. Global Warming and Issues
2. All about Pollution

  • Himachal witnesses gradual snowfall pattern shift  

    Why in the News?

    • Himachal Pradesh is experiencing a reducing snow cover over the years.
      • There is a noticeable shift in snowfall occurrence from winter months towards early summer months.

    Findings from the Latest Study:

    • The study by the Centre on Climate Change of Himachal Pradesh Council for Science Technology-Environment (HIMCOSTE) shows an overall decrease of 12.72% in snow cover area in 2023-24 compared to 2022-23.
    • The study used Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS) satellite data to analyze snow cover trends.
    • Early winter months (October-November) showed a decrease in snow cover area except for the Ravi basin, which showed a marginal increase in October.
    • Peak winter months (December-January) saw a negative trend in snow cover area.
    • Late winter months (February-March) showed a positive trend with an increase in snow cover area in all basins compared to the previous year.
    • Snow cover area increased in April due to fresh snowfall in the early summer period.

    Impact on Water Availability

    • The decrease in snow cover during peak winter months (December and January) is especially alarming.
    • Snowfall during these months sustains longer and enhances the discharge dependability of major river basins during summer.
    • Reduced snow cover in winter could affect water availability during the summer months.

    Concerns and Implications

    • Environmentalists and scientists are concerned about the shifting snowfall patterns.
    • Depleting snow cover and changing snowfall patterns have significant impacts on hydro-power, water sources, people, livestock, forests, farms, and infrastructure.

    Back2Basics: Rivers of Himachal Pradesh   

    Description
    Satluj
    • Originating from Rakas Lake in Tibet, the Satluj River is the longest river in Himachal Pradesh.
    • It flows through the districts of Kinnaur, Shimla, Kullu, Mandi, Solan, and Bilaspur, and enters Punjab near Nangal.
    • The river is crucial for hydropower generation and irrigation.
    • Hydropower Dams: Bhakra Dam (Bhakra-Nangal Project), Nathpa Jhakri Dam, Karcham Wangtoo Dam.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Rakas Lake (Tibet), Zema Glacier, Shipki La Glacier.
    Beas
    • The Beas River originates from Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass.
    • It flows through the districts of Kullu, Mandi, Hamirpur, and Kangra, eventually entering Punjab.
    • It is known for its picturesque valleys and is significant for agriculture and hydropower.
    • Hydropower Dams: Pandoh Dam, Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Beas Kund Glacier.
    Ravi
    • Originating from the Bara Bhangal Glacier in the Himalayas, the Ravi River flows through the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh.
    • It eventually enters Pakistan. The river is crucial for both hydropower and irrigation in the region.
    • Hydropower Dams: Chamera Dam (Chamera I, II, and III).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Bara Bhangal Glacier.
    Chenab
    • The Chenab River, formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers, originates from the Bara Lacha Pass in Lahaul-Spiti.
    • It flows through the districts of Lahaul and Chamba before entering Jammu and Kashmir.
    • It is one of the largest rivers in terms of discharge and is vital for hydropower.
    • Hydropower Dams: No major dams within Himachal Pradesh, but significant potential for hydropower.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Bara Shigri Glacier, Miyar Glacier.
    Yamuna
    • The Yamuna River originates from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Garhwal Himalayas.
    • It forms the eastern boundary of Himachal Pradesh with Uttarakhand.
    • It is one of the most sacred rivers in India and supports major irrigation systems downstream.
    • Hydropower Dams: No significant major hydropower projects within Himachal Pradesh (major dams located downstream in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Yamunotri Glacier.
    Spiti
    • The Spiti River originates from the Kunzum Range and flows through the cold desert region of Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh.
    • It joins the Satluj River near Khab. The river is known for its stunning landscapes and unique ecosystem.
    • Hydropower Dams: No significant major hydropower projects (projects primarily focused on other rivers in the region).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Kunzum Range Glaciers.
    Parbati
    • The Parbati River originates from the Parbati Glacier in the Kullu district.
    • It is a tributary of the Beas River.
    • The river is significant for its hydropower potential and scenic beauty, attracting many trekkers and nature enthusiasts.
    • Hydropower Dams: Parbati Hydroelectric Project.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Parbati Glacier.

  • What is a Climate Finance Taxonomy, announced by FM Sitharaman?

    Why in the News?

    • The 2024 Union Budget, presented by Finance Minister, includes developing a taxonomy for climate finance.
      • The aim is to enhance the availability of capital for climate adaptation and mitigation.

    What is a Climate Finance Taxonomy?

    • A climate finance taxonomy is a classification system that identifies which economic activities can be marketed as sustainable investments.
    • It serves as a guide for investors and financial institutions to direct capital towards projects that contribute to climate adaptation and mitigation, aligning with broader environmental goals.

    Significance of a Climate Finance Taxonomy

    • Net-Zero Economy: With global temperatures rising and the adverse effects of climate change worsening, countries need to transition to a net-zero economy.
    • Alignment with Transition Pathways: Taxonomies help ascertain if economic activities are aligned with credible, science-based transition pathways.
    • Deployment of Climate Capital: They provide an impetus for the deployment of climate capital by directing investments towards sustainable projects.
    • Reduction of Greenwashing Risks: Taxonomies help reduce the risks of greenwashing by providing clear criteria for what constitutes a sustainable investment.

    Why does India need a Green Taxonomy?

    • According to the IFC, India needs an estimated $10.1 trillion to achieve net-zero by 2070.
    • Public investments alone can’t match this goal, calling for standardization in investments.

    Benefits for India

    • For India, a taxonomy could attract more climate funds from international sources.
    • Currently, green finance flows in India are falling short of the country’s needs, accounting for only around 3% of total FDI inflows, according to the Landscape of Green Finance in India 2022 report by the Climate Policy Initiative.
    • A lack of clarity on what constitutes sustainable activity is a significant reason for the low green finance flows. A taxonomy would address this issue.

    India’s Climate Commitments:

    • India aims to achieve a net-zero economy by 2070.
    • The country has pledged to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030, compared to the 2005 level.
    • India has also committed to achieving about 50% of its cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.

    Steps taken by India:

    • In January 2021, India established a task force on sustainable finance under the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance.
      • The task force’s objectives include creating a framework for sustainable finance, establishing pillars for a sustainable finance roadmap, suggesting a draft taxonomy of sustainable activities, and creating a framework of risk assessment by the financial sector.
    • In April 2021, the RBI joined the Central Banks and Supervisors Network for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) as a member.
    • RBI is also a member of a task force on climate-related financial risks set up by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision and the International Platform on Sustainable Finance.

    Potential for Green Investments in India

      • According to a report by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), India has a climate-smart investment potential of $3.1 trillion from 2018 to 2030.
      • The largest investment opportunity lies in the electric vehicle segment, with a potential of $667 billion as India aims to electrify all new vehicles by 2030.
    • The renewable energy sector also presents a substantial investment opportunity, estimated at $403.7 billion.

    International Adoption of Taxonomies

    • Many countries have either started developing or have finalized their taxonomies.
    • Countries with developed taxonomies include South Africa, Colombia, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Canada, and Mexico.
    • The European Union has also developed its own taxonomy.

    PYQ:

    [2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
    2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2ºC or even 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels.
    3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 2 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • India plans to enter into a carbon crediting mechanism with Japan 

    Why in the news? 

    India is set to establish a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) with Japan for carbon trading and emission-reduction credits.

    Memorandum of Cooperation for Setting Up a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM)

    • Objective and Framework: India and Japan plan to sign a Memorandum of Cooperation to establish a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) for sharing emission-reduction credits. The JCM will involve a structured allocation of carbon credits and maintain a registry to track these credits, with projects needing clearance from a Joint Committee.
    • Implementation and Oversight: The mechanism will be governed under Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement, adhering to relevant domestic laws and regulations of both countries. A Joint Committee will develop rules, manage project cycles, and oversee monitoring and issuance of credits.

    Emission Cuts

    • Credit Allocation: Credits issued under the JCM will contribute to both Japan’s and India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. The JCM will avoid double counting of credits and may authorize some credits for international mitigation purposes.
    • Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: Japan will support technology transfer, finance, and capacity building to enhance the effectiveness of the JCM and facilitate the adoption of new technologies.

    Significance of JCM:

    • Increased Access to Clean Technologies: The JCM will facilitate the transfer of advanced decarbonizing technologies from Japan to India, such as renewable energy systems, energy-efficient appliances, and waste management solutions.
    • Job Creation and Skill Development: The implementation of JCM projects will create new employment opportunities in sectors like renewable energy, energy efficiency, and waste management

    Bilateral ties between India and Japan

    • Strategic Partnership: The JCM will strengthen bilateral ties between India and Japan by fostering collaboration on low-carbon technologies and climate action, aimed at boosting job creation and investments in clean technologies.
    • Clean Energy Partnership: It was launched in March 2022, the India-Japan Clean Energy Partnership (CEP) aims to enhance cooperation in sustainable energy transitions to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.
    • Investment Commitments: During the 14th India-Japan Annual Summit in March 2022, both nations agreed on a target of $42 billion (JPY 5 trillion) in public and private investment from Japan to India over the next five years
    • Low Carbon Emission Strategies: A $600 million fund was established to focus on environmental sustainability and low carbon emission strategies. This initiative is part of a broader effort to enhance Japanese investments in India while addressing climate change.

    Way forward: 

    • Prioritize the adoption of cutting-edge decarbonizing technologies: Japan should prioritize the transfer of its most advanced low-carbon technologies to India, such as renewable energy systems, energy-efficient appliances, and carbon capture and storage solutions.
    • Expand the scope of the JCM to include other areas of climate cooperation: While the initial focus of the JCM should be on emission reduction projects, India and Japan could explore expanding its scope to include other areas of climate cooperation, such as adaptation measures, climate finance, and capacity building.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • [8th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: A law around low-carbon climate-resilient development

     

    PYQ Relevance:

    Mains: 

    Q) Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC CSE 2017) 

    Q) ‘Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC CSE 2022) 

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: Supreme court judgements related to climate change impact,

    Mains:  Role of state and local Government to address the impact of climate change, 

    Mentor comment: Climate change poses grave threats to human rights, including the rights to life, health, food, water, housing, and an adequate standard of living. Extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and environmental degradation disproportionately impact vulnerable populations. Governments have a legal obligation to curb climate change, and corporations must respect human rights by reducing emissions and adapting to climate impacts. Addressing climate change is crucial to upholding human rights and ensuring a sustainable future for all.

    Let’s learn!

    __ __

    Why in the news? 

    In a landmark judgment, the Supreme Court of India recently recognized a right to be “free from the adverse impacts of climate change” in “M.K. Ranjitsinh and Others vs Union of India”, deriving it from the right to life and the right to equality.

    Law to inform development choices 

    • Integrating Climate Objectives into Development: Ensure that low-carbon and climate-resilient futures are prioritized in routine decision-making at all levels of development. Embed climate objectives in the legal framework to guide sustainable development choices.
    • Grounding Climate Action in Social Justice: Design laws to protect vulnerable populations disproportionately affected by climate change. Ensure the energy transition is just and equitable, advancing social justice and inclusive development.
    • Adopting a Comprehensive and Flexible Approach: Move beyond top-down emission targets to address broader developmental choices and their long-term impacts. Establish well-defined legal procedures that promote continuous consideration of low-carbon and climate-resilient futures.
    • Building a Robust Institutional Framework: Create an institutional structure to strategize, prioritize, troubleshoot, and evaluate climate policies. Enhance governance capacity to ensure credible and accountable climate action across all levels of government.
    • Tailoring Framework Climate Laws to the Indian Context: Adapt elements of global framework climate laws to suit India’s specific needs, focusing on maximising development per unit of carbon emitted. Emphasize climate resilience and social equity, ensuring development progresses in a low-carbon direction while building resilience to pervasive climate impacts.

     Need for a Low-Carbon Development Body

    • Rigorous Policy Analysis and Knowledge Generation: Establish a knowledge body in government to rigorously analyze policy options and their potential futures. Enable informed decision-making through a comprehensive understanding of low-carbon development and resilience strategies.
    • Expertise and Technical Guidance: Create an independent ‘low-carbon development commission’ staffed with experts and technical personnel. Provide national and state governments with practical guidance on achieving low-carbon growth and resilience.
    • Deliberative Decision-Making and Stakeholder Consultation: Facilitate a platform for deliberative decision-making involving multiple stakeholders. Systematically consult vulnerable communities and those adversely affected by technological changes to ensure their concerns are heard and integrated, leading to more sustainable and inclusive policy outcomes.
    • Strategic Direction and Whole-of-Government Coordination: Form a high-level strategic body, or ‘climate cabinet,’ comprising key Ministers and representation from State Chief Ministers to drive climate strategy across government. Address the challenge of siloed decision-making by promoting a whole-of-government approach with dedicated coordination mechanisms.
    • Enhanced Governance and Legal Empowerment: Complement the role of the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change with higher-level coordination bodies. Reinforce existing structures like the Executive Committee on Climate Change with clearly defined legal powers and duties to ensure effective implementation and accountability in climate governance.

    Role of State and Local Governments in Climate Law

    • Engagement with Federal Structure: Recognize the importance of India’s federal structure in climate governance. Acknowledge that crucial areas for emission reduction and resilience improvement, such as electricity, agriculture, water, health, and soil, are managed by State and local governments.
    • First Responders to Climate Impacts: Understand that climate impacts are felt first and most intensely at local levels. Ensure that any institutional structure or regulatory instrument engages meaningfully with subnational governments.
    • Access to National Scientific Capacity: Establish channels for subnational governments to access national scientific resources and expertise. Utilize the low-carbon development commission as an intermediary to enhance local climate scientific capacity.
    • Financing Local Action: Develop mechanisms for financing local climate actions. Align centrally-sponsored schemes with climate goals and require national departments to climate-tag expenditures to enhance local climate resilience.
    • Coordination Mechanisms and Unified Goals: Create coordination mechanisms for the Centre and States to consult on major climate decisions. Require periodic updates of medium-term climate plans from both Centre and States, built around unified climate goals.
    • State-Specific Solutions and Institutions: Enable States to develop complementary institutions to those at the Centre, providing local knowledge, strategy-setting, deliberation, and coordination functions. Foster the development of State-specific solutions that address unique local climate challenges.

    Steps taken by Government to address the impact of climate change: 

    • International Solar Alliance (ISA): Launched in 2015, this alliance aims to efficiently utilize solar energy and reduce dependence on non-renewable sources like fossil fuels.
    • One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG) project with the UK: This project aims to build and scale inter-regional energy grids to share solar energy globally.
    • Swachh Bharat Mission: This program emphasized cleaning India’s cities and villages by providing toilets for every household.
    • National Clean Air Programme: Launched in 2019 to reduce particulate matter concentrations in the atmosphere.
    • Green Skill Development Programme: Launched to develop green skills and provide employment in the environment and forest sectors.
    • Commitment to get 50% of energy from renewable sources and reduce total projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030: The government aims to ensure sustainable development of the environment.
    • Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid & Electric Vehicles (FAME) India scheme: Launched in 2015 to promote electric vehicles and decrease coal consumption.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Institutional and Legal Frameworks: Establish robust institutions like an independent low-carbon development commission to provide expert guidance, facilitate stakeholder consultations, and ensure informed decision-making.  
    • Promote Inclusive and Equitable Climate Action: Integrate social equity considerations into climate policies by systematically consulting vulnerable communities and those affected by technological changes.  

  • The shape of a five-year climate agenda for India

    Why in the news? 

    The new government’s climate actions will impact all sectors, shaping India’s sustainable economic path, global leadership, and fight for climate finance and justice.

    Initiatives Taken by the Indian Government in the Last Decade and Their Significant Results

    • International Solar Alliance (ISA): Promotes the widespread adoption of solar energy, enhancing global cooperation in renewable energy.
    • Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Focuses on building resilient infrastructure to withstand climate-induced disasters.
    •  Net-Zero by 2070: India’s commitment to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 marks a significant shift towards absolute emission reductions.
    • Enhanced Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Setting ambitious targets for reducing emissions intensity and increasing renewable energy capacity.
    • Indian Emissions Carbon Trading Scheme: Establishing a carbon trading system to incentivize emission reductions and support sustainable economic growth.
    • Significant Growth in Renewable Energy Capacity: Rapid expansion in solar and wind energy installations, contributing to India’s international non-fossil fuel energy targets.
    • Green Development Pact under G-20 Presidency: Integrating green development principles into global economic practices, showcasing India’s leadership in sustainable development.

    How India can enhance it’s Global negotiations wrt Climate change? 

    • Hosting International Climate Summits: India should aim to host a major international climate summit like the United Nations Conference of Parties (COP) in 2028. This would provide a platform to showcase its climate leadership and set ambitious global climate agendas. Successful hosting, akin to its G-20 Presidency, would strengthen India’s influence in global climate policy.
    • Advocacy and Consensus Building: India should start early to build consensus on critical climate issues, such as ending new investments in oil and gas post-2030 and securing significant commitments for adaptation finance. Proactively engaging in dialogues, forming alliances, and addressing concerns of other nations will help India lead negotiations and drive meaningful outcomes.
    • Promoting Equity and Climate Finance: India should continue to emphasize equity in climate action and finance in international forums. Advocating for fair treatment of developing countries and pushing for enhanced climate finance mechanisms will strengthen India’s position as a leader of the Global South.

    Role of Federal Entities in Enhancing Climate Action

    • Collaboration on Long-Term Climate Strategies: Federal entities can work with state governments to develop and implement long-term climate and energy models. Examples include supporting states like Tamil Nadu and Bihar in crafting their net-zero plans.
    • Enhanced Coordination and Policy Alignment: Forming a Centre-State coordination group can ensure better synchronization of climate actions across states. This group can facilitate regular communication and policy alignment while respecting the autonomy of each state.
    • Financial Incentives through the Sixteenth Finance Commission: Federal entities can use financial mechanisms like the Finance Commission to incentivize states for their climate initiatives. This can include grants or additional funding for states that demonstrate significant progress in climate action.
    • Integration of Scientific Capabilities in Policymaking: Encouraging states to incorporate scientific modelling and data analysis into their climate policies. Federal support can enhance the technical capabilities of states, ensuring data-driven and effective climate strategies.
    • Consistent and Accurate Climate Data Management: Developing a unified MRV architecture at the state level to standardize data collection and reporting. This system can help track progress, ensure accountability, and facilitate better policy adjustments based on reliable data.

    The Indian government has taken several initiatives to address climate change, but their effectiveness is still being evaluated:

    • National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): Launched in 2008, the NAPCC identified eight national missions to promote understanding of climate change, adaptation and mitigation, energy efficiency, and natural resource conservation. While these missions have led to some progress, such as the ambitious targets set under the National Solar Mission, their overall impact is still being assessed.
    • State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs): Under the NAPCC, states are required to develop their own action plans. As of 2022, 33 states and union territories have prepared their SAPCCs. However, the implementation and monitoring of these plans remain a challenge.
    • Climate change research and knowledge networks: The government has supported various research initiatives and knowledge networks to enhance understanding of climate change impacts and responses. These include the National Network Programmes on Climate Change Modelling, Aerosols, and Coastal Vulnerability. While these networks have generated valuable knowledge, their ability to inform policy and action is still being evaluated

    Conclusion: India should expand its climate targets beyond the power sector to include other key areas such as transportation, industry, and agriculture. Clear and ambitious targets for zero-carbon two- and four-wheelers, as well as other sectors, will drive comprehensive decarbonization efforts.

     

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at World Leaders Summit of the COP26 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November 2021. When was this idea first floated in the International Solar Alliance (ISA)? (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • [1st July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Court on climate right and how India can enforce it

    [1st July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Court on climate right and how India can enforce it

    Mains PYQ Relevance: 

    Q) “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.  (UPSC IAS/2022)
    Q) Examine the scope of Fundamental Rights in the light of the latest judgement of the Supreme Court on Right to Privacy. (UPSC IAS/2017)

    Prelims:
    Q) The power of the Supreme Court of India to decide disputes between the Centre and the States falls under its (UPSC IAS/2014)
    (a) Advisory jurisdiction
    (b) Appellate jurisdiction
    (c) Original jurisdiction
    (d) Writ jurisdiction

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: Supreme Court on Endangered species; 

    Mains: Landmark Judgements by SC; Judicial Interventions;

    Mentor comments: The Supreme Court in M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. ruled that people have a right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change which should be recognised by Article 14 and Article 21 of the Constitution. The ruling of the Supreme Court was rendered in response to a writ brought by a government official. The court acknowledged the complex interplay between environmental conservation, social equity, economic prosperity, and climate change. It stressed the need to balance the conservation of endangered species like the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) with the imperative of protecting against climate change.

    It appointed an Expert Committee to determine the best way to protect the species. This decision aimed to support India’s renewable energy goals and climate commitments while ensuring environmental protection. However, the effectiveness of court rulings on climate change remains a question, as climate change is a complex, multi-dimensional problem that requires a holistic approach. The court’s decision to defer to the executive on certain matters related to climate change policy has also been criticized by some experts.

    Let’s learn

    —

    Why in the News?

    The Apex court’s recent decision on M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. to defer to the executive on certain matters related to climate change policy has been questioned by experts.

    What was the Supreme Court’s recent Landmark Judgment?

    • The Supreme Court in M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. ruled that that people have a right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change which should be recognised by Article 14 and Article 21 of the Constitution. 
    • The ruling of the Supreme Court was rendered in response to a writ brought by conservationist and retired government official M K Rnajitsinh, who sought protection for two endangered species namely the Lessor Florican and the Great Indian Bustard.
    • The court acknowledged the complex interplay between environmental conservation, social equity, economic prosperity, and climate change.
    • While modifying its earlier order to underground power cables in the Great Indian Bustard’s habitat, the court prioritized transmission infrastructure to enable renewable energy development to address climate change.

    Present challenges along the verdict of Supreme Court:

    • Unresolved questions: The judgment leaves unresolved questions regarding the court’s emphasis on large-scale clean energy as the main pathway to avoiding climate harm and its potential understatement of climate adaptation and local environmental resilience.
    • Non-clarity: The court did not clarify how the newly recognized right against the adverse effects of climate change will be protected in practice.
    • Two potential approaches to realizing this right emerge:
      • The proliferation of court-based climate litigation, which may lead to an incomplete patchwork of protections.
      • The enactment of climate legislation, which can provide an overarching framework to guide future policy.

    The Need for Climate Legislation in India

    • Absence of an “umbrella legislation” in India : India needs climate legislation that is tailored to its unique context, rather than blindly copying other countries.
    • Framework climate legislation can set the vision for engaging with climate change across sectors and regions, create necessary institutions, and put in place processes for structured and deliberative governance in anticipation of and reaction to climate change.
    • Tailoring Climate Legislation to the Indian Context should also:
      • create a supportive regulatory environment for sustainable cities, buildings, and transport
      • enable adaptation measures like heat action plans and climate-resilient agriculture
      • protect key ecosystems like mangroves
      • consider social equity in achieving these goals
    • A single, omnibus law covering all these areas may not be feasible given India’s existing legal framework.
    Lessons from International Experience:

    • Climate laws in many countries, like the UK’s, focus narrowly on regulating carbon emissions, which is ill-suited for India.
    • Instead, India needs an “enabling law” that stimulates development-focused decisions across sectors towards low-carbon and climate-resilient growth.
    • An enabling law should be more procedurally-oriented, creating institutions, processes, and standards for mainstreaming climate change across ministries and society (emphasizing both adaptation and mitigation).

    Federal Factor:

    • On Decentralized approach: Many areas relevant to climate action, such as urban policy, agriculture, water, and electricity, fall under the authority of state and local level governments. An Indian climate law must set a framework for coherent national action and decentralize sufficiently to empower states and local governments.
    • On Fiscal and Governing Policies: The regional states and local governments need to be provided with information and finance to take effective actions. This would enable diverse segments of society to bring their knowledge and expertise to the table in addressing climate change.

    The Way Forward:

    • India should learn from international experience, both in terms of what not to do and what directions to follow.
    • The country’s climate legislation should be tailored to its unique context of being a developing, highly vulnerable nation still building its infrastructure.

    https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/court-on-climate-right-and-how-india-can-enforce-it/article68352441.ece

  • Climate change forces Panama islanders to relocate

    Why in the news? 

    In early June, approximately 300 families were relocated from the island of Gardi Sugdub in Panama’s Guna Yala province due to concerns about rising sea levels.

    What is happening in Gardi Sugdub?

    • Location and Community: Gardi Sugdub, home to about 1,300 members of the Guna community, is an island in Panama’s Guna Yala province.
    • Sea Level Rise: The Caribbean region, where Panama is situated, is experiencing sea level rise at an average rate of 3 to 4 millimetres per year. This rate is expected to accelerate to 1 centimetre per year or more by 2100.
    • Flooding: Annually, particularly in November and December, seawater floods houses and streets on Gardi Sugdub, despite efforts to fortify the island.
    • Relocation: The Panamanian government constructed 300 new houses on the mainland in a development called Nuevo Cartí to relocate affected families.

    How are other island nations affected by sea level rise?

    • Small island developing states (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable due to their low elevation and reliance on marine resources. SIDS in the Caribbean, Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and South China Sea face existential threats from rising sea levels.
    • Examples of Impact: Islands such as Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands, and Kiribati are experiencing significant land loss and threats to their culture and economies.
    • Consequences: Coastal erosion, salinization of freshwater resources, and increased vulnerability to extreme weather events due to rising sea levels, storm surges, and ‘king tides.’

    How fast is the global sea level rising?

    • Since 1880, global sea levels have risen by approximately 21–24 centimeters. The rate of increase has accelerated in recent decades.
    • Causes: The primary drivers are global warming, thermal expansion of seawater, and the melting of land-based ice such as glaciers and ice sheets.
    • Due to the Global Temperature Increase: The global average temperature has increased by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880, contributing to rising sea levels.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Coastal and Environmental Defenses: Construct seawalls, breakwaters, and other barriers to protect against storm surges and coastal erosion. Restore and preserve natural coastal barriers such as mangroves, coral reefs, and wetlands to enhance natural protection.
    • Develop and Implement Climate Adaptation Strategies: Create comprehensive climate adaptation plans that include relocation strategies for vulnerable communities.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard? (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • Why the Thar Desert on the borders of India and Pakistan is getting greener?

    Why in the news?

    Rajasthan’s barren Thar Desert may turn green, says a recent study in the journal Earth’s Future.  

    About Thar Desert

    • The Thar Desert is the 18th largest subtropical desert globally and is one of the most densely populated deserts.
    • Approximately 40% of the human population in Rajasthan resides in the Thar Desert.
    • It extends from the Sutlej River and is bounded by the Rann of Kutch, the Aravalli Mountains, and the Indus River.
    • About 85% of the Thar Desert is located in India, with the remainder in Pakistan. 
    • In India, it spans across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab as well.
    • Civilizations are believed to have thrived in the Thar region around 50,000 years ago across the extinct Saraswati River.
    • The Desert National Park (home to the endangered Great Indian Bustard, desert fox, desert cat, blackbuck, and Indian gazelle) is situated in the Thar Desert in the northwest Indian state of Rajasthan.

    Why the thar desert getting greener?

    • Climate Change Effects:
        • Alteration of Weather Patterns: Climate change is causing shifts in rainfall distribution in the thar desert area.
        • Potential for Vegetation Growth: The increased precipitation could provide favorable conditions for vegetation growth, contributing to the greening of the desert.
    • Indian Monsoon Dynamics:
        • Westward Extension of Indian Monsoon: The Indian monsoon, known for bringing heavy rainfall to eastern India, is now extending further westward into regions like the Thar Desert.
        • Impact on Moisture and Rainfall: This change in monsoon dynamics could lead to increased moisture and rainfall in the desert region, facilitating the growth of vegetation.
    • Expansion of Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP):
        • Influence on Monsoon Patterns: The Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP) influences monsoon patterns and rainfall distribution over the Indian subcontinent.
        • Westward Expansion due to Climate Change: Climate change is causing the IOWP to expand westward, potentially resulting in increased rainfall over semi-arid regions like the Thar Desert and promoting greening.
    • Water Management Practices:
        • Contribution to Greening: Effective water management practices, such as rainwater harvesting and irrigation techniques like johad, kuis, and kunds, may be playing a role in the greening of the Thar Desert.
        • Utilization of Water Resources: By harnessing and efficiently utilizing available water resources, local communities and authorities can support vegetation growth and ecosystem restoration efforts in the desert.
    • Introduction of Irrigation  
      • Commercial Cropping: Irrigation was introduced during British colonial rule in the 19th and 20th centuries to convert arid and semi-arid ecosystems into cropland.
      • Restrictions on Grazing: The right to graze animals was restricted to landowners who cultivated crops, leading to the transformation of nomadic pastoralists into sedentary agropastoralists.
    Sustainability of this transformation

    • Recent greening activities, largely on arid scrub savannahs, have threatened species adapted to such climates and have been linked to locust outbreaks.
    • The Indira Gandhi Canal project in the 1980s led to extensive crop cover in the Thar Desert, resulting in areas becoming infertile due to waterlogging and salinity.
    • Planting invasive species, such as prosopis juliflora and acacia tortilis, has led to habitat degradation and biodiversity loss.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit water loss?

    1. Hard and waxy leaves
    2. Tiny leaves
    3. Thorns instead of leaves

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 2 and 3 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2020] The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples.

    [2013] Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western side of the continents. Why?  

     

  • No outcome in Bonn: why money is key to climate action

    Why in the news?

    The Bonn climate meeting failed to define a new climate finance goal, crucial for finalizing a sum exceeding $100 billion annually by the end of 2024.

    Key Highlights of the Climate Meeting in Bonn, Germany

    • Failure to Define New Climate Finance Goal: The recent climate meeting in Bonn did not make significant progress in setting a new climate finance goal. This new goal is supposed to replace the existing $100 billion per year target, which needs to be finalized by the end of 2024.
    • Outcome: The meeting only produced a lengthy 35-page “input paper” summarizing various countries’ demands and concerns, without providing any concrete numbers or agreements. This paper is expected to be developed into a formal negotiating draft for COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan.

    Search for a New NCQG (New Collective Quantified Goal)

    • Importance of Climate Finance: Money is essential for climate action, including mitigation, adaptation, and other tasks like collecting and reporting climate data, which require substantial funds, especially in developing countries.
    • Existing Commitment: Developed countries had promised to mobilize $100 billion annually from 2020 to help developing countries fight climate change. This target is now being re-evaluated to increase the amount post-2025.

    Previous Assessment

    • Current Needs: It is widely recognized that developing countries now require trillions of dollars annually. A UNFCCC assessment indicated that these countries need about $6 trillion by 2030 for climate actions, with adaptation needs alone requiring $215 billion to $387 billion annually.
    • Energy Transition: The global shift to clean energy requires investments of about $4.3 trillion per year until 2030 and around $5 trillion annually thereafter until 2050 to achieve global net-zero emissions.
    • Developing Countries’ Demands: India has proposed that developed countries should provide at least $1 trillion annually after 2025, while Arab and African countries have suggested figures of $1.1 trillion and $1.3 trillion, respectively.

    Debate Over Contribution

    • Original Responsibility: According to the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement, only the 25 countries listed in Annexure 2, along with the European Economic Community, are responsible for providing climate finance to developing countries.
    • Shifting Responsibility: These countries argue that other nations, such as China, Gulf countries, and South Korea, are now economically capable and should also contribute. However, countries like China have stated they do not intend to take on additional responsibilities beyond their current efforts.
    • Developed Countries’ Stance: While acknowledging that the new target must be higher than the existing $100 billion per year, developed countries have not made any specific offers publicly.

    Way forward:

    • Clear Definition of Climate Finance: Establish a universally accepted definition of climate finance to prevent discrepancies in reporting and ensure transparency.
    • Precise Targets and Timelines: Set clear, incremental targets leading up to the final goal, with defined timelines for achieving these targets. This will provide a roadmap for both developed and developing countries.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?  (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • Bonn Climate Conference 2024: 3rd Glasgow dialogue flags need for loss & damage cooperation

    Why in the News?

    This week, the Third Glasgow Dialogue on Loss and Damage occurred during the 60th Session of the Subsidiary Bodies (SB60) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Bonn, Germany.

    Key highlights of the Conference:

    • Dialogue on Loss and Damage (L&D): The conference focused on discussions around the mechanisms under the UNFCCC, including the Santiago Network on Loss and Damage (SNLD), the Warsaw International Mechanism (WIM), and the recently operationalized Loss and Damage Fund (LDF).
    The SNLD was established at COP25 in 2019 to catalyze technical assistance for developing countries in implementing approaches for averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage

    The WIM was established at COP19 in 2013 to promote approaches for averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage associated with climate change impacts

    The LDF was operationalized at COP27 in 2022 to provide financial support to developing countries for averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage
    • Progress in Mechanisms: The co-chairs of each mechanism highlighted the progress made in addressing L&D in the UNFCCC negotiations. This includes positive steps taken in forming the Board of the LDF and formalizing its institutional arrangements and additional rules.
    • Global South Concerns: Countries from the Global South, including the African Group of Negotiators (AGN), the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), and the Arab Group, emphasized the growing cases of L&D in developing nations. There were calls for better cooperation and coordination between countries and mechanisms to address L&D more effectively.
    African Group of Negotiators (AGN): It is a coalition of African countries that work together to coordinate their positions and negotiate on various international issues, such as climate change, sustainable development, and human rights.

    Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS): It is a coalition of small island developing states that work together to address common challenges and promote their interests in international forums.

    Arab Group: It is a coalition of Arab states that work together to promote their collective interests and coordinate their positions on various international issues.
    • Need for Clarity and Coordination: There were calls for a clear relationship between the SNLD, WIM, and LDF, as they each continue to have separate discussions despite having the same goal of addressing L&D. Coordination between these mechanisms would address gaps and improve resource mobilization for developing nations.

    About Article 6 and its structural mandate:

    • Article 6 of the UNFCCC deals with cooperative approaches for the implementation of climate action. It provides a framework for international cooperation in areas such as emissions trading, sustainable development, and the transfer of mitigation outcomes. 
    • The structural mandate of Article 6 aims to facilitate cooperation between countries to enhance climate action and achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.
    • Article 6.2: Authorisation is the formal approval process where emission reductions (Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes or ITMOs) are sanctioned by the host country for transfer to another country.
    • Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement focuses on operationalising market mechanisms for emission reduction units (6.4ERs), addressing issues like authorisation, carbon removal activities, and the role of the supervisory body in developing market procedures.

    Key Goals and Objectives:

    • Raised Ambition: International cooperation under Article 6 aims to raise ambition by enabling countries to achieve more ambitious emission reduction targets.
    • Supporting Sustainable Development: The cooperation mechanisms must support sustainable development, addressing not only climate change but also other sustainability issues.
    • Ensuring Environmental Integrity: The mechanisms must ensure environmental integrity by preventing emission reductions from being counted more than once and ensuring that countries do not circumvent their climate action efforts

    Way Forward:

    • Clarity and Coordination: There is a need for clarity on the framework of L&D as a whole, with a defined relationship between its key mechanisms. This would ensure better coordination and cooperation in addressing L&D effectively.
    • Enhanced Technical Interventions: Countries emphasized the importance of technical interventions such as Early Warning Systems and timely provision of finance to improve responses to L&D. Implementing these interventions could minimize the impacts of extreme weather events and facilitate faster recovery.
    • Tailored Responses: Responses to L&D must be tailored to the unique contexts of each country, with individual vulnerability and needs assessments being a priority. This would ensure that assistance and support are provided where they are most needed.
    • Trigger-based Funding Mechanisms: Suggestions were made for trigger-based funding mechanisms or timeline-based provision of funds for countries facing devastating impacts and remaining most vulnerable. Such mechanisms would ensure timely and adequate support for those in need.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at the World Leaders Summit of the COP26 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November 2021. When was this idea first floated in the International Solar Alliance (ISA)? (UPSC IAS/2021)