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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Case for open and verifiable Forest Cover Data

    forest

    Central idea: From 19.53% in the early 1980s, today India’s total green cover stands at 24.62% ‘on-paper’.

    Defining Forest and Tree Cover

    • The Forest Survey of India (FSI) publishes its biennial State of Forest reports in 1987.
    • A/c to FSI, India counts all plots of 1 hectare or above, with at least 10% tree canopy density, irrespective of land use or ownership, within forest cover.
    • This disregards the United Nation’s benchmark that does not include areas predominantly under agricultural and urban land use in forests.

    How are forests categorized?

    The Forest Survey of India has listed four categories of forests. They are:

    1. Very Dense Forest (with tree canopy density of 70 per cent or above) (added since 2003)
    2. Moderately Dense Forest (tree canopy density of 40 per cent or above but less than 70 per cent)
    3. Open Forest (tree canopy density of 10 per cent or above but less than 40 per cent)
    4. Scrub (tree canopy density less than 10 per cent)

    New category:  NOT a forest (isolated or small patches of trees — less than 1 hectare)

    Satellite imagery used for precision

    • Until the mid-1980s (SFR 1987), the forest cover was estimated through satellite images at a 1:1 million scale.
    • The resolution then improved to 1:250,000, reducing the minimum mappable unit size from 400 to 25 hectares.
    • Since 19.53% in the early 1980s, India’s forest cover has increased to 21.71% in 2021.
    • By 2001, the scale improved to 1:50,000, bringing down the unit size to 1 hectare, and interpretation went fully digital.

    Accounting losses in forest cover

    • Satellite imagery shows decline: The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) estimated declines in India’s forest cover using satellite imagery.
    • Official account on deforestation: While reliable data on encroachment is unavailable, government records show that 42,380 sq. km — nearly the size of Haryana— of forest land was diverted for non-forest use between 1951 and 1980.
    • Reconciled data: The NRSA and the newly established FSI “reconciled” India’s forest cover at 19.53% in 1987. The FSI did not contest the NRSA finding that the dense forest cover had fallen from 14.12% in the mid-1970s to 10.96% in 1981, and reconciled it to 10.88% in 1987.

    What about Total Recorded Forests?

    Ans. Lost some areas due to encroachment, diversion, forest fire etc.

    • In India, land recorded as forest in revenue records or proclaimed as forest under a forest law is described as Recorded Forest Area.
    • These areas were recorded as forests at some point due to the presence of forests on the land.
    • Divided into Reserved, Protected and Unclassed forests, Recorded Forest Areas account for 23.58% of India.

    One-third forest lost!

    • Almost one-third of India’s old natural forests — over 2.44 lakh sq. km (larger than Uttar Pradesh) or 7.43% of India are lost.
    • Even after extensive plantation by the forest department since the 1990s, dense forests within Recorded Forest Areas added up to cover only 9.96% of India in 2021.
    • That is a one-tenth slide since the FSI recorded 10.88% dense forest in 1987.

    Then why is there a net increase in India’s forest cover?

    • Plantations disguise as forest: The loss remains invisible due to the inclusion of commercial plantations, orchards, village homesteads, urban housings etc. as dense forests outside Recorded Forest Areas. Natural forests do not grow so fast.
    • Plantation data unavailable: The FSI provides no specific information on the share of plantations in the remaining dense forests inside Recorded Forest Areas.

    Why are plantations not an alternative to forests?

    Plantations can grow a lot more and faster than old natural forests. This also means that plantations can achieve additional carbon targets faster. However they are cannot be accounted as forests because-

    • Lack of biodiversity: Natural forests have evolved naturally to be diverse and, therefore, support a lot more biodiversity. Simply put, it has many different plants to sustain numerous species.
    • Non-sustainable: Plantation forests have trees of the same age, are more susceptible to fire, pests and epidemics, and often act as a barrier to natural forest regeneration.
    • Low carbon capacity: Natural forests are old and therefore stock a lot more carbon in their body and in the soil.

    How accurate are these estimations?

    • The FSI compares some interpreted data with the corresponding reference data collected from the ground under the National Forest Inventory (NFI) programme.
    • In 2021, it claimed to have established an overall accuracy of 95.79% in identifying forests from non-forests.
    • However, given the limited resources, the exercise was limited to less than 6,000 sample points.

    What led to such decline in forest cover?

    • Agricultural expansion
    • Infrastructure development
    • Mining and industrial activities
    • Illegal logging (for timber)
    • Climate change and natural disasters

    Way forward

    • Aggressive conservation policies and programs: The government needs to strengthen forest conservation policies and programs to promote the sustainable use and management of forests and trees.
    • Community participation and empowerment: Engaging local communities in forest conservation and management can promote sustainable practices and enhance their livelihoods.
    • Sustainable forest management practices: Promoting sustainable forest management practices like agroforestry, silvopasture, and mixed-use landscapes can enhance the productivity and resilience of forests.
    • Use of technology for monitoring and enforcement: Leveraging technology like remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and blockchain can improve the monitoring and enforcement of forest conservation policies and programs.
    • Involving individuals and communities: They play a crucial role in protecting forests and trees by adopting sustainable practices, supporting forest conservation initiatives, and raising awareness about the importance of forests for the environment and people.

     

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  • Underwater noise emissions pose threat to Indian Marine species: Study

    noise

    Central idea: The rising man-made (anthropogenic) underwater noise emissions (UNE) from ships in the Indian waters are posing a threat to the life of marine mammals like Bottlenose Dolphin, Manatees, Pilot Whale, Seal, and Sperm Whale.

    What is Underwater Noise Emissions (UNE)?

    • Underwater noise emissions (UNE) refer to sounds that are produced underwater as a result of various human activities such as shipping, oil and gas exploration, military sonar, and construction.
    • UNE can have a significant impact on marine life, as many marine animals rely on sound for communication, navigation, and foraging.
    • Excessive underwater noise can interfere with these activities, and can even cause physical harm to marine animals in some cases.
    • As a result, there is growing concerned about the potential impact of UNE on marine ecosystems, and efforts are being made to better understand and mitigate these impacts.

    UNE and marine life

    • Impacts behavioural aspects: The main form of energy for multiple behavioural activities of marine mammals, which include mating, communal interaction, feeding, cluster cohesion and foraging, is based on sound.
    • Threats posed by UNE: The sound that radiates from ships on a long-term basis affects them and results in internal injuries, loss of hearing ability, change in behavioural responses, masking, and stress.

    Key findings about Indian waters

    • Continuous shipping movement is identified to be a major contributor to the increase in the global ocean noise level.
    • The UNE or underwater sound pressure levels in the Indian waters are 102-115 decibels, relative to one microPascal (dB re 1µ Pa).
    • The East Coast level is slightly higher than that of the West, where there is an increase by a significant value of about 20 dB re 1µPa.
    • “The frequencies of ships’ underwater self-noise and machinery vibration levels are overlapping the marine species’ communication frequencies in the low-frequency range of less than 500 Hz.
    • This is called masking, which could have led to a change in the migration route of the marine species to the shallow regions and also making it difficult for them to go back to the deeper water.

     

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  • Species in news: Pangolins

    pangolin

    The World Pangolin Day was observed on February 18.

    Why in news?

    • A not-for-profit organization working on the international trade of animals and plants, has brought out a fact sheet reporting that 1,203 pangolins have been found in illegal wildlife trade in India from 2018 to 2022.

    Pangolins

    IUCN status: Endangered

    • India is home to two species of pangolin.
    • While the Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is found in northeastern India, the Indian Pangolin is distributed in other parts of the country as well as Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
    • Both these species are protected and are listed under the Schedule I Part I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
    • Commonly known as ‘scaly anteaters’, the toothless animals are unique, a result of millions of years of evolution.
    • Pangolins evolved scales as a means of protection. When threatened by big carnivores like lions or tigers they usually curl into a ball.
    • The scales defend them against dental attacks from the predators.

    Why protect Pangolins?

    • Pangolins are currently the most trafficked wildlife species in the world.
    • These Scales has now become the main cause of the pangolin’s disappearance.
    • The scales are in high demand in China, where they are used in traditional Chinese medicine.
    • Pangolin meat is also in high demand in China and Southeast Asia.
    • Consequently, pangolins have seen a rapid reduction in population globally. The projected population declines range from 50 per cent to 80 per cent across the genus.

     

    Try this PYQ:

    Consider the following animals:

    1. Hedgehog
    2. Marmot
    3. Pangolin

    To reduce the chance of being captured by predators which of the above organisms rolls up/roll up and protects/protect its/their vulnerable parts?

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1 and 3

     

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  • CITES database reveals Red Sanders smuggling

    red sanders

    The CITES trade database has recorded 28 incidents of Red Sanders confiscation, seizure, and specimen from the wild being exported from India.

    Red Sanders

    • The species, Pterocarpus santalinus, is an Indian endemic tree species, with a restricted geographical range in the Eastern Ghats.
    • It is a very slow-growing tree species that attains maturity in natural forests after 25-40 years.
    • It is endemic to a distinct tract of forests in Andhra Pradesh.
    • It is mainly found in Chittoor, Kadapa, Nandhyal, Nellore, Prakasam districts of Andhra Pradesh.
    • It was classified as ‘near threatened’ in 2018 and has now joined the ‘endangered’ list once again in 2021.
    • It is listed under Appendix II of CITES and is banned from international trade.

    Legal protection in India

    • The Union Environment Ministry had decided to keep Red Sanders (red sandalwood) OUT of the Schedule VI of Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, arguing that this would discourage the cultivation of the rare plant species.
    • Schedule VI regulates and restricts the cultivation, possession, and sale of a rare plant species.

    Threats to this specie

    • Red Sanders are known for their rich hue and therapeutic properties, are high in demand across Asia, particularly in China and Japan.
    • They are used in cosmetics and medicinal products as well as for making furniture, woodcraft and musical instruments.
    • Its popularity can be gauged from the fact that a tonne of Red Sanders costs anything between Rs 50 lakh to Rs 1 crore in the international market.

    Try this question from CSP 2016:

    Q.With reference to ‘Red Sanders’, sometimes seen in the news, consider the following statements:

    1. It is a tree species found in a part of South India.
    2. It is one of the most important trees in the tropical rain forest areas of South India.

    Which of the above statements is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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    Back2Basics: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

    • CITES stands for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
    • It is as an international agreement aimed at ensuring “that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival”.
    • It was drafted after a resolution was adopted at a meeting of the members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1963.
    • It entered into force on July 1, 1975, and now has 183 parties.
    • The Convention is legally binding on the Parties in the sense that they are committed to implementing it; however, it does not take the place of national laws.
    • India is a signatory to and has also ratified CITES convention in 1976.

    CITES Appendices

    • CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls.
    • All import, export, re-exports and introduction from the sea of species covered by the convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
    • It has three appendices:
    1. Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade-in specimens of these species are permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
    2. Appendix II provides a lower level of protection.
    3. Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling trade.

     

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  • Species in news: Olive Ridley Turtles

    olive

    Hundreds of vulnerable Olive Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) have washed ashore along the coastline between Kakinada and Antarvedi in the Godavari region during the ongoing annual breeding season on the east coast.

    Why in news?

    • The wastewater from the aqua ponds is also being released into the sea.
    • This is suspected to be one of the reasons for the mortality of turtles

    Olive Ridley Turtles

    • The Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), also known as the Pacific ridley sea turtle, is a medium-sized species of sea turtle found in warm and tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
    • In the Indian Ocean, the majority of olive ridleys nest in two or three large groups at Rushikulya rookery near Gahirmatha in Odisha.
    • The coast of Odisha in India is the largest mass nesting site for the olive ridley, followed by the coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica.
    • The species is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List, Appendix 1 in CITES, and Schedule 1 in Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

    Special feature: Mass nesting

    • They are best known for their behavior of synchronized nesting in mass numbers, termed Arribadas.
    • Interestingly, females return to the very same beach from where they first hatched, to lay their eggs.
    • They lay their eggs in conical nests about one and a half feet deep which they laboriously dig with their hind flippers.
    • They hatch in 45 to 60 days, depending on the temperature of the sand and atmosphere during the incubation period.

     

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  • Silent Valley Bird Species goes up to 175

    silent valley

    A bird survey conducted at the Silent Valley National Park identified 141 species, of which 17 were new. So far, 175 species of birds have been spotted in Silent Valley.

    Silent Valley National Park

    • It is located in the border of Mannarkkad Taluk of Palakkad district, Nilambur Taluk of Malappuram district, Kerala, and Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu.
    • This national park has some rare species of flora and fauna. This area was explored in 1847 by the botanist Robert Wight.
    • It is located in the rich biodiversity of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
    • Mukurthi peak, the fifth-highest peak in South India, and Anginda peak are also located in its vicinity.
    • Bhavani River, a tributary of Kaveri River, and Kunthipuzha River, a tributary of Bharathappuzha river, originate in the vicinity of Silent Valley.
    • The Kadalundi River has also its origin in Silent Valley.

    New species spotted

    • Brown wood owl, Banded bay cuckoo, Malabar woodshrike, White-throated kingfisher, Indian nightjar, Jungle nightjar, and Large cuckooshrike were among the 17 species newly identified in the Silent Valley.

     

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  • Nilgiri Tahr Conservation Project

    nilgiri tahr

    The Tamil Nadu government launched an initiative for the conservation of the Nilgiri Tahr, the State animal.

    Nilgiri Tahr

    IUCN Conservation Status: Endangered

    Wildlife (Protection) Act of India, 1972: Schedule I

    • It is endemic to the Nilgiri Hills and the southern portion of the Western Ghats in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India.
    • It is the state animal of Tamil Nadu.
    • The Nilgiri tahr inhabits the open montane grassland habitat of the South Western Ghats montane rain forests eco-region.
    • At elevations from 1,200 to 2,600 metres (3,900 to 8,500 ft), the forests open into grasslands interspersed with pockets of stunted forests, locally known as sholas.
    • Eravikulam National Park is home to the largest population of this Tahr.
    • It is estimated that there are 3,122 Nilgiri Tahrs in the wild. It has become locally extinct in around 14% of its traditional shola forest-grassland habitat.

     

    Nilgiri Tahr Conservation Project

    • Under The Nilgiri Tahr project, TN government plans to develop a better understanding of the Nilgiri Tahr population through-
    1. Surveys and radio telemetry studies;
    2. Reintroduce the Tahrs to their historical habitat;
    3. Address proximate threats; and
    4. Increase public awareness of the species.
    • The project is to be implemented from 2022 to 2027.
    • Furthermore, October 7 will be celebrated as ‘Niligiri Tahr Day’ in honour of E.R.C. Davidar, who was responsible for pioneering one of the first studies of the species in 1975.

    Historic significance of Nilgiri Tahr

    • There are multiple references to the Nilgiri Tahr in Tamil Sangam literature dating back to 2,000 years.
    • The late Mesolithic (10,000-4,000 BC) paintings highlight the significance of the Tahr in folklore, culture and life.
    • It was designated as the State animal in recognition of its ecological and cultural significance.

     

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  • No Rhinos poached in Assam in 2022

    rhino

    Assam CM announced that no rhinos were poached in the state in 2022.

    Indian Rhinoceros

    • The Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is found only in the Brahmaputra valley, parts of North Bengal, and parts of southern Nepal.
    • It has a single black horn that can grow up to 60 cm, and a tough, grey-brown hide with skin folds, which gives the animal its characteristic armour-plated look.
    • It is listed as Vulnerable (better than endangered, worse than near threatened) in the IUCN Red List; it was earlier placed in the endangered category.
    • It is listed as a Schedule I animal in the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

    Why are Rhinos poached for horns?

    • Ground rhino horn is used in traditional Chinese medicine to cure a range of ailments, from cancer to hangovers, and also as an aphrodisiac.
    • In Vietnam, possessing a rhino horn is considered a status symbol.
    • Due to demand in these countries, poaching pressure on rhinos is ever persistent against which one cannot let the guard down.

    Flourishing population

    • According to the WWF, there are around 3,700 Indian rhinos in the wild today.
    • Assam’s Kaziranga National Park (KNP) alone has 2,613 animals, according to a census carried out in March 2022.
    • There are more than 250 other rhinos in the Orang, Pobitora, and Manas parks.
    • The WWF says the “recovery of the greater one-horned rhino is among the greatest conservation success stories in Asia”.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q. Consider the following statements:

    1. Asiatic lion is naturally found in India only.
    2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.
    3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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    Post your answers here.

    [/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

     

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  • What are Orans?

    Oran Bachao Yatras are taking place in Rajasthan for the protection of orans or sacred groves facing the threat of destruction due to the land being allotted for renewable energy infrastructure and high-tension power lines.

    What are Orans?

    • Orans are Community Conserved Areas protected for their sacred values.
    • They include woodlots, pastures, orchards, sacred groves, and habitats usually centered around sources of water such as natural springs, rivulets, or artificially constructed ponds.
    • Additionally, there is usually a shrine dedicated to a local deity at the heart of an Oran.
    • Their traditional boundaries are based on landmarks or geographical milestones established by indigenous and agro-pastoral communities associated with them.
    • Orans are usually defined by a strong community-territory relationship and a well-functioning governance system.

    Reasons for the Yatra

    • Named after local deities and medieval warriors, orans hold religious and social significance as small forest patches in the middle of the mighty Thar desert.
    • Orans also form the natural habitat for India’s most critically endangered bird, the Great Indian Bustard (GIB), a protected species under the Wildlife Protection Act, which is also the State bird of Rajasthan.
    • GIBs have died during the last few years because of collision with power lines, making this the most significant threat to the majestic birds.

    Back2Basics: Sacred Grooves

    • Sacred groves of India are forest fragments of varying sizes, which are communally protected, and which usually have a significant religious connotation for the protecting community.
    • It usually consists of a dense cover of vegetation including climbers, herbs, shrubs and trees, with the presence of a village deity and is mostly situated near a perennial water source.
    • Sacred groves are considered to be symbols of the primitive practice of nature worship and support nature conservation to a great extent.
    • The introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community-held lands, which could include sacred groves.

    Historical references

    • Indian sacred groves are often associated with temples, monasteries, shrines, pilgrimage sites, or with burial grounds.
    • Historically, sacred groves find their mentions in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, from sacred tree groves in Hinduism to sacred deer parks in Buddhism for example.
    • Sacred groves may be loosely used to refer to natural habitat protected on religious grounds.
    • Other historical references to sacred groves can be obtained in Vrukshayurveda an ancient treatise, ancient classics such as Kalidasa’s Vikramuurvashiiya.
    • There has been a growing interest in creating green patches such as Nakshatravana

    Regulation of activities in Sacred Grooves

    • Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches.
    • Other forms of forest usage like honey collection and deadwood collection are sometimes allowed on a sustainable basis.
    • NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves.
    • Traditionally, and in some cases even today, members of the community take turns to protect the grove.

    Threats to such grooves

    • Threats to the groves include urbanization, and over-exploitation of resources.
    • While many of the groves are looked upon as abode of Hindu deities, in the recent past a number of them have been partially cleared for construction of shrines and temples.

    Total grooves in India

    • Around 14,000 sacred groves have been reported from all over India, which act as reservoirs of rare fauna, and more often rare flora, amid rural and even urban settings.
    • Experts believe that the total number of sacred groves could be as high as 100,000.
    • They are called by different names in different states:
    1. Sarna in Bihar
    2. Dev Van in Himachal Pradesh
    3. Devarakadu in Karnataka
    4. Kavu in Kerala
    5. Dev in Madhya Pradesh
    6. Devarahati or Devarai in Maharashtra
    7. Lai Umang in Maharashtra
    8. Law Kyntang or Asong Khosi in Meghalaya
    9. Kovil Kadu or Sarpa Kavu in Tamil Nadu

     

     

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  • What is Purse Seine Fishing?

    seine

    The Centre has told the Supreme Court that a ban imposed by certain coastal States on purse seine fishing, which is known to disadvantage endangered species, is not justified.

     Purse seine fishing

    • It uses a large vertical net to surround dense shoals of pelagic or midwater fish in the open ocean, and then draws in the edges like tightening the cords of a drawstring purse.
    • A vertical net ‘curtain’ is used to surround the school of fish, the bottom of which is then drawn together to enclose the fish, rather like tightening the cords of a drawstring purse.
    • It is deployed widely on India’s western coasts,

    What is the issue?

    • This mode of fishing is prohibited by Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, Odisha, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu Andaman and Nicobar Islands in their respective territorial waters of up to 12 nautical miles.
    • However, states like Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, and West Bengal have not imposed any such ban on purse seine fishing.

    Why states are divided over this?

    • In some States, it is linked to concerns about the decreasing stock of small, pelagic shoaling fish such as sardines, mackerel, anchovies and trevally on the western coasts.
    • The scientific community argues that climatic conditions, including the El Nino phenomenon, are responsible for the declining catch of such fish in the last ten years.
    • Fishermen using traditional methods have placed the blame squarely on the rise of purse seine fishing.
    • They fear a further fall in the availability of these small fish if the ban is lifted.

    How does the Centre see this plan?

    • The Fisheries Department of the Union government has recommended the lifting of the ban on purse seine fishing.
    • The expert panel has said that this mode of fishing has “per se has not resulted in any serious resource depletion so far, given the available evidence”.
    • It recommended purse seiners to fish in territorial waters and the Indian Exclusive Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) subject to certain conditions.

    Way ahead

    • There should be a national management plan on purse seine fisheries.
    • Partial ban in some states may put fishermen at disadvantage in other states.

     

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