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Subject: Geography

  • Earth’s inner core rotating slower than surface: Study

    earth

    Earth’s inner core, a hot iron ball the size of Pluto, has stopped spinning faster than the planet’s surface and might now be rotating slower than it, research suggested.

    A quick recap of Earth’s Interior

    earth

    Structure of earth’s interior is fundamentally divided into three layers – crust, mantle and core.

    [A] Crust

    • It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
    • It is brittle in nature.
    • Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made of the crust.
    • The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different. Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust (about 30kms).
    • Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is often termed as SIAL(Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the region comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
    • The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
    • The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crustis termed as the Conrad Discontinuity.

     [B] Mantle

    • The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
    • The discontinuity between the crust and mantleis called as the Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
    • The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
    • Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by the mantle.
    • The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it is also termed as SIMA.
    • The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
    • The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust constitute the Lithosphere.
    • The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile, deforming region of the upper mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
    • The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which the lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).
    • The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower mantleis known as Repetti Discontinuity.
    • The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and asthenosphere, but above the core is called as Mesosphere.

    [C] Core

    • It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
    • The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s Discontinuity.
    • It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as NIFE.
    • It constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass.
    • It is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
    • It spins independently because it floats in the liquid metal outer core. One cycle of the swing is about seven decades approximately.
    • It consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
    • The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-liquid).
    • The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as Lehmann Discontinuity.
    • Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the whole interior.

    What should one understand about the interior of the earth?

    • It is not possible to know about the earth’s interior by direct observations because of the huge size and the changing nature of its interior composition.
    • It is an almost impossible distance for the humans to reach till the centre of the earth (The earth’s radius is 6,370 km).
    • The rapid increase in temperature below the earth’s surface is mainly responsible for setting a limit to direct observations inside the earth.

    Sources of Information about the interior of the earth

    Direct Sources:

    1. Rocks from mining area
    2. Volcanic eruptions

    Indirect Sources

    1. By analyzing the rate of change of temperature and pressurefrom the surface towards the interior.
    2. Meteors, as they belong to the same type of materials earth is made of.
    3. Gravitation, which is greater near poles and less at the equator.
    4. Gravity anomaly, which is the change in gravity value according to the mass of material, gives us information about the materials in the earth’s interior.
    5. Magnetic sources.
    6. Seismic Waves: the shadow zones of body waves (Primary and secondary waves) give us information about the state of materials in the interior.

    What is the new study about?

    • Exactly how the inner core rotates has been a matter of debate between scientists— and the latest research is expected to prove controversial.
    • A new research has analyzed seismic waves from repeating earthquakes over the last six decades.
    • It shows that- the inner core started rotating slightly faster than the rest of the planet in the early 1970s, the study said.
    • But it had been slowing down before coming in sync with Earth’s rotation around 2009.

    What made the core spin slower?

    • So far there is little to indicate that what the inner core does has many effects on surface dwellers.
    • The researchers said this rotation timeline roughly lines up with changes in what is called the “length of day”— small variations in the exact time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis.
    • But the researchers said they believed there were physical links between all of Earth’s layers, from the inner core to the surface.

     

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  • EIA must before allowing urban development projects: SC

    The Supreme Court has urged legislators and policy experts to ensure that Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) studies are done before giving the green signal for urban development projects in India’s cities.

    What is the news?

    • The Supreme Court how haphazard urban development has ruined the ‘Garden City’ of Bengaluru as witnessed during a major spell of rain in September 2022.
    • The court said that the city struggled for drinking water while it lay submerged after the downpour.

    Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) defines it as,

    a formal process to predict the environmental consequences of human development activities and to plan appropriate measures to eliminate or reduce adverse effects and to augment positive effects.

    • Thus, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an integral part of Environmental Management. It investigates likely impacts, both positive and negative, of development projects on the surrounding environment.
    • Simply put, EIA is a detailed study regarding the impacts of any project on the environment. It serves as a decision-making tool which helps policy makers approve, reject or find an alternative to a project

    EIA

    In India, Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) is notified under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.

    Evolution of EIA 

    • The origin of EIA lies in the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act(NEPA) in the year 1969 in the USA. It not only introduced the concept of environmental impact assessment but also made it necessary for federal agencies to evaluate impact of environmental decisions.
    • Environment Impact Assessment gained popularity after the introduction of the concept of sustainable developmentvia World Commission on Environment 1987 & United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summit) in 1992. It led to adoption of EIA in many countries as well. Principle 17 of the Rio Summit states that,
    • Environmental impact assessment (EIA), as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority. [Given just for your info. No need to remember this type of complex language.Instead, you can mention that EIA is mentioned explicitly under Principle 17 of the Rio declaration of 1992].
    • In 1976-77, EIA was started in India, when the Department of Science and Technology was asked by Planning Commission to examine the river-valley projects from the environmental angle.
    • Eventually n 1994, EIA was made mandatory in India under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. Until then, environmental clearance from the Central Government was an administrative decision and had no legislative backing.
    • Since then, EIA has been amended several times. The most significant amendment was made in 2006

    EIA Process

    Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) process can vary depending on a country’s policy and requirement. However, EIA process in most countries, including India, have the following steps:

    1. Screening
    2. Scoping
    3. Collection of baseline data
    4. Impact Prediction
    5. Assessment of alternatives, mitigation measures & Environmental, Impact Assessment Report
    6. Public Hearing
    7. Decision Making
    8. Monitoring the clearance conditions

    Screening: This is the first step in the EIA process. At this stage it is decided whether the proposed project needs an EIA and if so to what detail. Screening criteria are based upon:

    • Scales of investment
    • Type of development
    • Location of development

    Scoping: It is the most significant step in the entire EIA process as key environmental issues involved are identified at this stage.

    • Scoping has to be done by consultants in consultation with the project proponent and guidance, if needed, from Impact Assessment Agency
    • The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published sector-wise guidelines which outline the significant issues which have to be addressed while conducting the EIA studies.
    • At the end of scoping, detailed terms of reference (TOR) are prepared of EIA.
    • TOR is a written document containing written requirements governing EIA implementation, consultations to be held, data to be gathered, methodology to be used etc

    Involved in Environmental Impact Assessment

    Collection of baseline data: It describes the existing environmental status of the identified study area. The site-specific primary data is monitored and supplemented with secondary data

    Impact prediction: Under this, possible effects on the physical, biological, social and economic conditions are taken into consideration and measures are suggested to prevent, reduce or compensate for the impacts.

    For example:

    • Impact of biological diversity in an area ex. EIA done by Gadgil panel on the western ghats regions.
    • Impact on habitat because of deforestation and pollution- Impact on Himalayan ecosystem when hydropower projects are opened.
    • Impact on endangered animals and migratory paths. For ex Great India hornbill’s trail in India is evaluated so as to see that such developmental project is not affecting its pathway.
    • The predictions of impact can never be absolute and certain and thus there is a need to comprehensively consider all factors and take all possible precautions for reducing the degree of uncertainty.

    Assessment of alternatives, mitigation measures & Environmental Impact Assessment Report: Identification of alternatives and their comparison: For every project, possible alternatives are to be identified and environmental impacts and benefits to be compared.

    • Alternatives should then be ranked for selection of the best environmental option for optimum economic benefits to the community at large.
    • Environment Management Plan (EMP): Once alternatives have been reviewed, an impact mitigation plan is drawn up for the selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental improvements. EMP is a crucial input to monitoring the clearance conditions and therefore details of monitoring should be included in it.
    • EMP is a site-specific plan developed to ensure that the project is implemented in an environmentally sustainable manner where all contractors and subcontractors, including consultants understand the potential environmental risks arising from the project and take appropriate actions to properly manage that risk.
    • An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report prepared at this stage should provide clear information to the decision maker on the different environmental scenarios without the project, with the project and with project alternatives.

    Public Hearing: Public must be informed and consulted on a proposed development after the completion of EIA report

    • Gram Sabha must be consulted before the project starts. Gram Sabha means the electorate (people eligible to vote) of the region

    Decision-making: It involves consultations between the project proponent (assisted by a consultant) and the impact assessment authority (assisted by an expert group if necessary). Final decision regarding the project is taken, keeping in mind EIA and EMP (Environment Management Plan).

    Monitoring: Monitoring should be done during both construction and operation phases of a project. This is not only to ensure that the commitments made are complied with but also to observe whether the predictions made in the EIA reports were correct or not.

    • Where the impacts exceed the predicted levels, corrective action should be taken.
    • Monitoring enables the regulatory agency to review the validity of predictions and the conditions of implementation of the Environmental Management Plan (EMP).

    Objective of EIA

    • To bring out a national policy to encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and environment.
    • To promote efforts to prevent or eliminate damage to the environment.
    • To increase understanding of ecological systems and natural resources important to the nation

    Why we need Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)? / Significance of EIA / Benefits of EIA

    • Facilitates sustainable development: In present times anthropogenic activities like rapid industrialization, mass production and clearing of forests have created immense pressure on the natural environment. Tools like EIA help in balancing the need for economic growth with equally important concept of sustainability.
    • Mitigating negative impacts & informed decision-making– Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) helps in minimizing the negative impact of various development projects. It enables monitoring programmes to be established to assess future impacts and provide data on which managers can take informed decisions to avoid environmental damage.
    • Aids cost-effectiveness– EIA helps in selection and design of projects, programmes or plans with long term viability and therefore improves cost effectiveness.
    • Advance assessments also helps avoid future losses that may be incurred if the project is found environmentally unacceptable at a later stage. Cost of adaptation when a project is already running is usually more.

    Thus, EIA as a tool aims to minimize the environmental impacts emanating out of any economic activity that have the potential to cause environmental degradation.

    Environmental Components

    Rapid EIA vs Comprehensive EIA

    The difference is in the time scale of the data supplied. But both types require complete coverage of all EIA procedures

    • Rapid EIA: Under Rapid EIA data supplied is of only one season(other than monsoon) to reduce the time required. Rapid EIA is for speedier appraisal process.
    • Comprehensive EIA: It collects data from all four seasons.Rapid EIA is acceptable if it does not compromise upon the quality of decision making. The review of Rapid EIA submissions will show whether a comprehensive EIA is warranted or not. Therefore, submission of comprehensive EIA in the first stance would generally be more efficient approach. Comprehensive EIA includes appraisal of those projects whose analysis in not to be done soon, here time is not the essential factor but the quality of the appraisal is.

    EIA notifications

    Central govt has the power to issue EIA notifications under Section 3 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, wherein it can impose restrictions on setting up new projects or expansion or modernisation of existing projects. The section stipulates that such measures must benefit the environment.

    Under the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, first EIA notification was issued in 1994. Later, it was replaced by a modified draft in 2006

    Salient Features of EIA rules Amendment done in 2006 

    • Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 decentralized the environmental clearance projects by categorizing the developmental projects in two categories i.e., Category Aand Category B

    Salient features of EIA

    After 2006 Amendment, EIA comprises of four cycles:

    • Screening
    • Scoping
    • Public Hearing
    • Appraisal
    • State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) are constituted to provide clearance to category B projects.
    • Category A Projects require mandatory environmental clearance. Screening process is not required.
    • Category B projects undergo screening process. They are classified in two types:
    • Category B1 Projects: Mandatorily require EIA
    • Category B2 Projects: Do not require EIA

    Thus,

    • Category Aprojects and category B1 projects undergo the complete EIA process
    • Category B2projects are excluded from complete EIA process

    This 2006 EIA notification has undergone several amendments over last 14 years. A new draft EIA Notification 2020 has been floated by the govt. It is meant to incorporate the amendments and court orders issued since 2006.

    Major Provisions of draft EIA notification 2020

    • Public Consultation 
    • Period of public consultation hearings is proposed to be reduced to a maximum of 40 days.
    • Time provided for the public to submit their responses is proposed to be reduced from present 30 to 20 days.
    • Rationale by the govt: the shorter window was “in tune with the times”, given the growth of internet and mobile telephony.
    • Concern: Several environmental activists and organisations have instead argued that even the 30-day timeframe was inadequate as information failed to reach the stakeholders residing in remote and inaccessible terrains
    • More discretionary powers to government
    • Central government can declare “economically sensitive areas” without public hearing or environmental clearance
    • Government also gets to decide which projects are to be considered “strategic”.
    • Post-facto clearance: Legalisation of projects that have commenced operations without obtaining necessary clearances; subject to a payment of penalty.

    Supreme court’s view on post–facto clearance –

    • In a judgment in early 2020, in the case of Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd vs Rohit Prajapati,the Supreme Court by also referring to Common Cause vs. Union of India judgment, struck down and condemned ex-post facto environmental clearance (a concept which the new draft EIA proposes to regularise).
    • In 2013, the Hon’ble Supreme Court in the case of Association for Environmental Protection vs State of Kerala, held that commencement of projects without obtaining prior EC (environmental clearance) is a violation of the fundamental right to lifeguaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution

     

    • Post-clearance compliance: Post-clearance compliance implies that once a project gets approved by the concerned authority, the proponent projects are required to adhere to certain rules laid down in the EIA report in order to ensure that no further environmental damages take place.
    • The new draft EIA, contrary to the 2006 notification — which required submission of the compliance report every six months, proposes annual reports. 
    • Concern: Environmental experts are of the view that allowing a longer period for filling the compliance report will give an opportunity to project proponents to hide disastrous consequences, which could go unnoticed

     

    • Exemption clause: It identifies a long list of projects like roads and pipelines in border areas which have been exempted from public consultation and prior clearance.
    • Concern: Analysts note that by this provision, the government shall have discretion to designate any project as being of strategic importance. Activists in states with crucial resources like uranium, as in Meghalaya, have also opposed this provision

     

    • Baseline Data: Does away with the need to carry out studies covering all seasons in a year

    In the 2019 ‘Ease of Doing Business’ report by the World Bank, India rose steadily from 142nd ranking in 2014 to 63rd ranking in 2019. India, however, has steadily declined on Environment Performance Index, from 141st rank in 2016 to 168th rank out of 180 countries in 2020.

    The government has assured that it will strive to strike a balance between the environmental and developmental concerns. As and when the EIA is finalised, it is expected to incorporate the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in a balanced manner.

    Shortcomings of the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) process

    Applicability: There are several projects with environmental impacts that are exempted from the notifications. Ex. Low scale sand mining

    Inadequate capacity of EIA approval authorities: Lack of technical and environmental experts, anthropologists and social scientists among the members and involvement of crony capitalism and nexus between corporates and politicians leads to faulty decision making, where projects which severe harm the environment may also get approved.

    Deficiencies in screening, scoping and impact analysis: There are no independent bodies and no standardized formats for project evaluation.

    • Absence of standardized baseline data brings arbitrariness in impact prediction.
    • It is allegedly done by those people which are on the payroll of company which creates a conflict of interest. They intentionally exclude negative impact on forests/ environment and impact on tribes during the scoping process

    Poor quality EIA reports: EIA is presently used as a project justification tool rather than as a project planning tool to contribute to achieving sustainable development. Involvement of planning for future activities should also be focused upon along with the justification of the project itself.

    • EIA is not just a tool to describe YES or NO regarding a project but also about how the harm, if any, to the environment can be minimized, so as to be pollution-neutral and environmentally sustainable.

    Initiated at a later stage: Another flaw in the EIA process in India is that it is undertaken at a much later stage, especially after the project has been designed, approved and almost ready for construction. Thus, by the time EIA starts huge costs are incurred and the project becomes too big to fall.

    Inadequate public participation: In many countries like Nepal, Argentina and Australia, public involvement is mandatory at various stages of the EIA process (i.e., screening, scoping, report preparation and decision making), but in India public consultation occurs only once during the entire process. According to the EIA notification 2006, this public consultation is performed in two ways.

    • First, written comments are sought on draft EIA report from stakeholders
    • Second, public hearing is conducted at or near the proposed project site.

    Drawbacks of this system:

    • Public consultation is done after the preparation of draft EIA reportand when it is ready for final submission to the expert committee.
    • Also, the notification issued for public hearing are not published in local vernacular languagesthus keeping it out of the scope of understanding of locals.

    Weak monitoring: Monitoring is not done through an independent agency. Environment management plans of strategic industries like nuclear energy are not put into the public domain.

    How can we strengthen the EIA process?

    1.Independent Agency: Entire EIA process right from screening to monitoring should be done by independent agencies and establishing a National Accreditation Body for agencies carrying out EIA.

    • Creation of centralized baseline data bank

    2.Applying Precautionary Principle: This principle states that if there is a threat of serious damage (in this case, to the environment) from a particular action then a lack of scientific certainty should not be used to avoid taking steps to prevent that damage. Hence, the list of concerns raised by the public should be studied in detail to arrive at any conclusion. Ex. GM crops.

    • Clearances given to project that is not clearly justified becomes questionable as happened in Sethusamudram Project

    3.Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA): It helps in choosing a project and not just evaluate it. It offers alternatives and guides project financing. The directives of SEA are reflected in the National Environment Policy 2006. Similarly, Nepal also carries out SEA’s.

    • A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a systematic process for evaluating the environmental implications of a proposed policy, planor programme

    4.Robust and Inclusive public hearing: A key role for local people through Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) at every stage. Special focus on forests and tribal. The traditional knowledge of locals needs to be incorporated.

    5.Transparency: Greater transparency in the clearance process and dissemination of all documents for public scrutiny.

    6.Capacity Building: NGO’s, civil society groups and local communities need to build their capacities to use the EIA notification towards better decision-making on projects that can impact their local environments and livelihoods. Capacities can be built to proactively and effectively use the notification rather than respond in a manner that is seen as negative or unproductive.

    Way forward

    In a world that is challenged by environmental degradation and social conflicts, scholars have upheld public and local participation to be a “threshold condition” for development. EIA provides this necessary element in the economic development process. Therefore, EIA-based approvals for most projects should mandatorily and necessarily involve the process of conducting public hearings so that the views and opinions of people who are likely to be affected can be taken on board before a decision to approve the project is made so as to reduce future scope of resentment.

     

  • In news: Bhopal Gas Leak Tragedy

    bhopal

    The Supreme Court has grilled the Centre on how the settlement can be reopened, when Union Carbide has already paid over $ 470 million to the Bhopal gas tragedy victims, and also expressed concern over Rs 50 crore undisbursed funds.

    Why in news?

    • Union Carbide, now a part of Dow Jones – has not fulfilled its responsibility in terms of providing just compensation.
    • Around 19 years after compensation was agreed upon, the Indian government filed a curative petition in 2010 to seek additional compensation from Dow, of more than ten times the amount it gave in 1989.

    Bhopal Gas Tragedy

    • On the night of December 2, 1984, one of the biggest industrial disasters to ever take place began unfolding in Bhopal.
    • Harmful Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas started leaking from a nearby Union Carbide pesticide plant, eventually resulting in the Bhopal Gas tragedy.
    • An estimated 3,000 people died within the first few days.
    • Over time, similarly horrifying numbers of those who suffered life-long health issues would become known.

    Health hazards of the disaster

    • Its effects were such that apart from killing thousands of people in a short span of time, it led to disease and other long-term problems for many who inhaled the gas.
    • The sources of water around the factory were deemed unfit for consumption and many handpumps were sealed.
    • To date, the reproductive health of many of Bhopal’s women has been affected.
    • Children born to those exposed to the gas have faced congenital health problems.

    How did govt respond to the disaster?

    The incident pointed to the lack of specific laws in India at the time for handling such matters.  This changed after Bhopal.

    • Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: It authorised the central government to take relevant measures and regulate industrial activity for environmental and public safety.
    • Public Liability Insurance Act of 1991: It was also passed to provide public liability insurance for providing immediate relief to the persons affected by an accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance.

     

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  • What is Joshimath Crisis?

    joshimath

    Many families living in Uttarakhand’s Joshimath has shifted to safe places after their homes developed deep cracks, leaving them in a panicked state.

    Joshimath Crisis

    • Joshimath lies on an ancient landslide, resting on a deposit of sand and stone, not rock.
    • The rivers Alaknanda and Dhauli Ganga play their part in triggering landslides, by eroding the river banks and mountain edges.
    • It is believed that increased construction activity and growing population have contributed to frequent landslides in the area, the 1976 Mishra Committee Report had pointed out.

    What is Land Subsidence?

    • Land subsidence is when the ground sinks or settles.
    • It can happen because people are taking too much water or minerals from the ground, which causes the ground to sink.
    • It can also be caused by natural processes, like soil compaction or the movement of the earth’s crust.
    • Land subsidence can cause problems like damage to buildings and roads, and can make it more likely for flooding to occur.

    Why is it sinking?

    • Joshimath is a deposit of sand and stone — it is not the main rock — hence it was not suitable for a township.
    • Vibrations produced by blasting, heavy traffic, etc. has led to a disequilibrium in natural factors.
    • Lack of proper drainage facilities also leads to landslides.
    • A lot of water has been percolating down into the porous crystalline rocks beneath the surface, softening them further.
    • When water is not allowed to flow down its natural course, it creates a lot of pressure, either over the ground, or underneath.
    • The existence of soak pits, which allow water to slowly soak into the ground, is responsible for the creation of cavities between the soil and the boulders.
    • This leads to water seepage and soil erosion.

    Issues with Joshimath’s town-planning

    • Overt tourism: The place is now the hub of tourists headed to at least three important shrines — Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and Shankaracharya temple — as a result of which major infrastructure development has taken place.
    • Ignoring topography: There are lots of loose soft rocks, moraine (material left behind by retreating glaciers), and sediments. The soil is, therefore, not ideal for large constructions.
    • Seismically active area: Added to this is the fact that the area falls in a highly seismic zone, and experiences regular tremors, making the top soil unstable.

    Preventing a disaster

    1976 Mishra Committee Report suggested-

    • Imposition of restrictions on heavy construction: Construction should only be allowed after examining the load-bearing capacity of the soil and the stability of the site, and restrictions should also be imposed on the excavation of slopes.
    • Keeping the boulders: In the landslide areas, stones and boulders should not be removed from the bottom of the hill as it would remove toe support, increasing the possibility of landslides.
    • Sealing of cracks: Cracks which have developed on the slopes should be sealed. The toe of a landslide is its bottom-most point.
    • Conserving of trees: It has also advised against cutting trees in the landslide zone, and said that extensive plantation work should be undertaken in the area, particularly between Marwari and Joshimath, to conserve soil and water resources.
    • Agriculture on the slopes must be avoided: Activities like ploughing loosens the soil thereby triggering the scope for landslides.
    • Preventing water seepage: To prevent any more landslides in the future, the seepage of open rain water must be stopped by the construction of a pucca drainage system.
    • Cobbled roads: Roads should be metalled and without scuppers, that drain away the water from the road surface.
    • River training: The construction of structures to guide the river’s flow should be carried out. Hanging boulders on the foothills should be provided with appropriate support.

    Way forward

    • Ensuring safety of people: This should be immediate priority. State government should establish a clear and continuous communication channel with the affected people.
    • Time-bound reconstruction plan must be prepared.
    • Continuous seismic monitoring must be done.
    • A risk sensitive urban development plan for Joshimath should also be developed.

     

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  • What is Winter Solstice?

    solstice

    Today, December 21, is Winter Solstice, the shortest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, conversely, it was Summer Solstice, the year’s longest day.

    What is Winter Solstice?

    • The winter solstice, also called the hibernal solstice, occurs when either of Earth’s poles reaches its maximum tilt away from the Sun.
    • This happens twice yearly, once in each hemisphere.

    What are Solstices?

    • Solstices occur because Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted about 23.4 degrees relative to Earth’s orbit around the sun.
    • This tilt drives our planet’s seasons, as the Northern and Southern Hemispheres get unequal amounts of sunlight over the course of a year.
    • From March to September, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted more toward the sun, driving its spring and summer.
    • From September to March, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away, so it feels like autumn and winter.
    • The Southern Hemisphere’s seasons are reversed.
    • On two moments each year—what are called solstices—Earth’s axis is tilted most closely toward the sun.

    Impact on day-time

    • The hemisphere tilted most toward our home star sees its longest day, while the hemisphere tilted away from the sun sees its longest night.
    • During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer solstice—which always falls around June 21—the Southern Hemisphere gets its winter solstice.
    • Likewise, during the Northern Hemisphere’s winter solstice—which always falls around December 22—the Southern Hemisphere gets its summer solstice.

    Impact of the tilted axis

    • The Northern Hemisphere spends half the year tilted in the direction of the Sun, getting direct sunlight during long summer days.
    • During the other half of the year, it tilts away from the Sun, and the days are shorter.
    • Winter Solstice, December 21, is the day when the North Pole is most tilted away from the Sun.
    • The tilt is also responsible for the different seasons that we see on Earth.
    • The side facing the Sun experiences day, which changes to night as Earth continues to spin on its axis.

    Un-impacted regions

    • On the Equator, day and night are equal. The closer one moves towards the poles, the more extreme the variation.
    • During summer in either hemisphere, that pole is tilted towards the Sun and the polar region receives 24 hours of daylight for months.
    • Likewise, during winter, the region is in total darkness for months.

    Celebrations associated with the Winter Solstice

    • For centuries, this day has had a special place in several communities due to its astronomical significance and is celebrated in many ways across the world.
    • Jewish people call the Winter Solstice ‘Tekufat Tevet’, which marks the start of winter.
    • Ancient Egyptians celebrated the birth of Horus, the son of Isis (divine mother goddess) for 12 days during mid-winter.
    • In China, the day is celebrated by families coming together for a special meal.
    • In the Persian region, it is celebrated as Yalda or Shab-e-Yalda. The festival marks the last day of the Persian month of Azar and is seen as the victory of light over darkness.
    • Families celebrate Yalda late into the night with special foods such as ajeel nuts, pomegranates and watermelon, and recite works of the 14th-century Sufi poet Hafiz Shirazi.

    In Vedic tradition

    • In Vedic tradition, the northern movement of the Earth on the celestial sphere is implicitly acknowledged in the Surya Siddhanta.
    • It outlines the Uttarayana (the period between Makar Sankranti and Karka Sankranti). Hence, Winter Solstice is the first day of Uttarayana.

     

    Try this MCQ:

    Q. On 21st June, the Sun

    (a) Does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle

    (b) Does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

    (c) Shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator

    (d) Shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”g83sek2y9c” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

     

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  • Cyclone Mandous makes landfall in Tamil Nadu

    mandous

    Cyclone Mandous crossed the north Tamil Nadu coast with fierce winds and heavy downpour.

    Cyclone Mandous

    • ‘Mandous’ was a name submitted by WMO member United Arab Emirates and is pronounced as ‘Man-Dous.’
    • It means ‘treasure box’ in Arabic.

    What are Tropical Cyclones?

    • A tropical cyclone is an intense circular storm that originates over warm tropical oceans and is characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high winds, and heavy rain.
    • Cyclones are formed over slightly warm ocean waters. The temperature of the top layer of the sea, up to a depth of about 60 meters, need to be at least 28°C to support the formation of a cyclone.
    • This explains why the April-May and October-December periods are conducive for cyclones.
    • Then, the low level of air above the waters needs to have an ‘anticlockwise’ rotation (in the northern hemisphere; clockwise in the southern hemisphere).
    • During these periods, there is an ITCZ in the Bay of Bengal whose southern boundary experiences winds from west to east, while the northern boundary has winds flowing east to west.
    • Once formed, cyclones in this area usually move northwest. As it travels over the sea, the cyclone gathers more moist air from the warm sea which adds to its heft.

    Requirements for a Cyclone to form

    There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis:

    • Sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures
    • Atmospheric instability
    • High humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere
    • Enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure centre
    • A pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance
    • Low vertical wind shear

    How are the cyclones named?

    • In 2000, a group of nations called WMO/ESCAP (World Meteorological Organisation/United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) decided to name cyclones.
    • It comprised Bangladesh, India, the Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand, decided to start naming cyclones in the region.
    • After each country sent in suggestions, the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones (PTC) finalized the list.
    • The WMO/ESCAP expanded to include five more countries in 2018 — Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.

    Basics

    Cyclones

    • The atmospheric disturbances which involve a closed circulation of air around a low pressure at the center and high pressure at the periphery, rotating anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere (due to the Coriolis force) are called “cyclones”.

    Cyclones are broadly classified into two types based on the latitudes of their origin-

    • Tropical cyclones
    • Temperate/Extra-tropical cyclones

    Tropical Cyclones

    • Tropical cyclones develop in the region between the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer. These are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move on to the coastal regions bringing large-scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. These cyclones are one of the most devastating natural calamities.
    • Tropical cyclones mostly move along with the direction of trade winds, so they travel from east to west and make landfall on the eastern coasts of the continents.
    • Tropical cyclones are known by different names depending on the regions of the world. They are known as Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South China Sea, Willy-willies in Western Australia and Cyclones in the Indian Ocean.

    Temperate Cyclones/Extra-Tropical Cyclones

    • It occurs between 30°-60° latitude in both hemispheres (in between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle in the northern hemisphere and in between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the southern hemisphere).
    • These cyclones move with the westerlies and are therefore oriented from west to east.

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  • Mauna Loa: Hawaii’s biggest Volcano set to erupt

    mauna

    Mauna Loa, the world’s largest active volcano has erupted after 38 years, spewing ash and debris, and covering the sky of Hawaii’s Big Island.

    Where is Mauna Loa?

    mauna

    • Mauna Loa is one of five volcanoes that together make up the Big Island of Hawaii (biggest being the Mauna Kea).
    • It is the southernmost island in the Hawaiian archipelago.
    • It’s not the tallest (that title goes to) but it’s the largest and makes up about half of the island’s land mass.
    • It sits immediately north of Kilauea volcano, which is currently erupting from its summit crater.

    Do you know?

    Any volcano that has erupted within the Holocene period (in the last 11,650 years) is considered to be “active” by scientists. “Dormant” volcanoes are those active volcanoes which are not in the process of erupting currently, but have the potential to do so in the future.

    Why do volcanoes erupt?

    • The deeper one goes under the surface of the Earth towards its core, the hotter it gets.
    • The geothermal gradient, the amount that the Earth’s temperature increases with depth, indicates heat flowing from the Earth’s warm interior to its surface.
    • At a certain depth, the heat is such that it melts rocks and creates what geologists call ‘magma’.
    • Magma is lighter than solid rock and hence it rises, collecting in magma chambers.
    • Chambers that have the potential to cause volcanic eruptions are found at a relatively shallow depth, between six to ten km under the surface.
    • As magma builds up in these chambers, it forces its way up through cracks and fissures in Earth’s crust. This is what we call a volcanic eruption.
    • The magma that surfaces on the Earth’s crust is referred to as lava.

    Why is the eruption of Mauna Loa so explosive?

    • Eruptions vary in intensity and explosiveness, depending on the composition of the magma.
    • In simple terms, runny magma makes for less explosive volcanic eruptions that typically are less dangerous.
    • Since the magma is runny, gasses are able to escape, leading to a steady but relatively gentle flow of lava out of the mouth of the volcano.
    • The eruption at Mauna Loa is of this kind. Since the lava flows out at a slow pace, people typically have enough time to move out of the way
    • . Geologists are also able to predict the flow of the lava depending on the incline and exact consistency it has.

    How is vulcanism measured?

    • The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a scale used to measure the explosivity of a volcano.
    • It has a range of 1 to 8 with a higher VEI indicating more explosivity.
    • While the VEI of the current eruption at Mauna Loa is not known yet, the previous eruption in 1984 was deemed to have a VEI of 0.

     

    Also read about the Pacific Ring of Fire.

     

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  • Places in news: Shiveluch Volcano

    shiveluch

    The Shiveluch volcano on the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East has increased its activity and is now in danger of erupting violently.

    About Shiveluch

    • Shiveluch is one of the largest and most active volcanoes in Kamchatka, having erupted at least 60 times in the past 10,000 years.
    • Kamchatka is home to 29 active volcanoes, part of a vast belt of Earth known as the “Ring of Fire” which circles the Pacific Ocean and is prone to eruptions and frequent earthquakes.
    • It has two main parts: Old Shiveluch, which tops 3,283 metres (10,771 ft), and Young Shiveluch – a smaller, 2,800-metre peak protruding from its side.
    • Young Shiveluch lies within an ancient caldera – a large crater-like basin that likely formed when the older part underwent a catastrophic eruption at least 10,000 years ago.
    • It is this part that has become extremely active; the lava dome continues to grow and that stronger “fumarole activity” has been observed.

     

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  • Places in news: Sahel Region

    sahel

    French President Emmanuel Macron announced the end of the decade-long Operation Barkhane in Africa’s Sahel Region.

    Note the nations falling in Sahel Region.

    Sahel Region

    • The Sahel is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south.
    • Having a semi-arid climate, it stretches across the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea.
    • The name is derived from the Arabic term for “coast, shore”; this is explained as being used in a figurative sense in reference to the southern edge of the vast Sahara.
    • The Sahel part includes from west to east parts of northern Senegal, southern Mauritania, central Mali, northern Burkina Faso, the extreme south of Algeria, Niger, the extreme north of Nigeria, the extreme north of Cameroon and the Central African Republic, central Chad, central and southern Sudan, the extreme north of South Sudan, Eritrea and the extreme north of Ethiopia.

    What is Operation Barkhane?

    • France began its military operations in Sahel in January 2013.
    • Titled Operation Serval, it was limited to targeting Islamic extremists linked to al-Qaeda who took control of northern Mali.
    • However, in 2014, the mission was scaled up, renamed Operation Barkhane and was aimed at counter-terrorism.
    • The objective was to assist local armed forces to prevent the resurgence of non-state armed groups across the Sahel region.
    • Around 4,500 French personnel were deployed with the local joint counter-terrorism force.

     

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  • Groundwater Extraction Lowest in 18 years

    groundwater

    Groundwater extraction in India saw an 18-year decline, according to an assessment by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB).

    What is Groundwater?

    groundwater

    • Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock.
    • It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.
    • Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone.
    • Water can move through these materials because they have large connected spaces that make them permeable.
    • Aquifers, hand-dug wells, and artesian wells are different types of sources of groundwater.

    Declining trend of groundwater extraction

    • The total annual groundwater recharge for the entire country is 437.6 billion cubic metres (bcm) in 2022.
    • However the extraction for entire country is only 239.16 bcm, according to the 2022 CGWB report.
    • By comparison, an assessment in 2020 found that the annual groundwater recharge was 436 bcm and extraction 245 bcm.
    • The 2022 assessment suggests that groundwater extraction is the lowest since 2004, when it was 231 bcm.

    Implications of the CGWB report

    • A detailed analysis of the assessment indicates increase in ground water recharge.
    • This is mainly attributed to:
    1. Increase in recharge from canal seepage,
    2. Return flow of irrigation water and
    3. Recharges from water bodies/tanks & water conservation structures.

    Significance of groundwater

    • Groundwater supplies drinking water to a sizeable population in India and almost 99% of the rural population.
    • It helps grow our food. 64% of groundwater is used for irrigation to grow crops.
    • It is an important component in many industrial processes.
    • It is a source of recharge for lakes, rivers, and wetlands.

    Why discuss this?

    • Depletion: People face serious water shortages because groundwater is used faster than it is naturally replenished.
    • Contamination: In other areas groundwater is polluted by human activities.

    Reasons for Depletion

    • Increased demand for water for domestic, industrial and agricultural needs and limited surface water resources lead to the over-exploitation of groundwater resources.
    • Limited storage facilities owing to the hard rock terrain, along with the added disadvantage of lack of rainfall, especially in central Indian states.
    • Green Revolution enabled water-intensive crops to be grown in drought-prone/ water deficit regions, leading to over-extraction of groundwater.
    • Frequent pumping of water from the ground without waiting for its replenishment leads to quick depletion.
    • Subsidies on electricity and high MSP for water-intensive crops is also leading reasons for depletion.
    • Inadequate regulation of groundwater laws encourages the exhaustion of groundwater resources without any penalty.
    • Deforestation, unscientific methods of agriculture, chemical effluents from industries, and lack of sanitation also lead to pollution of groundwater, making it unusable.
    • Natural causes include uneven rainfall and climate change that are hindering the process of groundwater recharge.

    Impact of groundwater depletion

    • Lowering of the water table: Groundwater depletion may lower the water table leading to difficulty in extracting groundwater for usage.
    • Reduction of water in streams and lakes: A substantial amount of the water flowing in rivers comes from seepage of groundwater into the streambed. Depletion of groundwater levels may reduce water flow in such streams.
    • Subsidence of land: Groundwater often provides support to the soil. When this balance is altered by taking out the water, the soil collapses, compacts, and drops leading to subsidence of land.
    • Increased cost for water extraction: As the depleting groundwater levels lower the water table, the user has to delve deep to extract water. This will increase the cost of water extraction.

    Regulation of Groundwater in India

    (1) Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)

    • It has the mandate of regulating ground water development and management in the country.
    • It is constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986.
    • CGWA issues advisories, public notices and grant No Objection Certificates (NOC) for ground water withdrawal.

    (2) National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM)

    • The NAQUIM is an initiative of the Ministry of Jal Shakti for mapping and managing the entire aquifer systems in the country.
    • It maintains the Hydrological Map of India.

    (3) Atal Bhujal Yojana 

    • It is a Central Sector Scheme, for sustainable management of groundwater resources with community participation in water-stressed blocks.

    Way Forward

    • Routine survey: There should be regular assessment of groundwater levels to ensure that adequate data is available for formulating policies and devising new techniques.
    • Assessment of land use pattern: Studies should be carried out to assess land use and the proportion of agricultural land falling under overt-exploited units.
    • Changes in farming methods: To improve the water table in those areas where it is being overused, on-farm water management techniques and improved irrigation methods should be adopted.
    • Reforms in power supply subsidies: The agricultural power-pricing structure needs to be revamped as the flat rate of electricity adversely affects the use of groundwater.
    • Monitoring extraction: There should be a policy in place to monitor the excessive exploitation of groundwater resources to ensure long-term sustainability.

     

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