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Subject: Geography

  • What is Ningaloo ‘Hybrid’ Solar Eclipse?

    ningaloo

    A ‘hybrid’ solar eclipse called the Ningaloo Eclipse recently happened on April 20, 2023.

    Ningaloo ‘Hybrid’ Solar Eclipse

    • It was a rare astronomical event that occurred on April 20, 2023.
    • The Moon passed directly between the Sun and the Earth, casting a shadow on a narrow strip of land in Western Australia.
    • It was a “hybrid” eclipse, starting as an annular eclipse and transitioning into a total eclipse.
    • The path of the eclipse crossed over the Ningaloo Reef, a world heritage site in Western Australia.
    • It offered a unique opportunity to view the eclipse against the backdrop of the reef and the Indian Ocean.

    How rare are such events?

    • During a solar eclipse, the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, casting a shadow on Earth’s surface.
    • However, solar eclipses do not occur every month because the Moon’s orbit is tilted by about 5 degrees relative to Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
    • Therefore, the Moon’s shadow usually misses Earth, but occasionally the alignment is just right for a solar eclipse to occur.
    • In the case of the Ningaloo Hybrid Solar Eclipse, the alignment was such that the Moon was at the right distance from Earth to create both an annular and a total eclipse as it moved across the Sun.
    • This type of eclipse is quite rare, occurring only about once every 400 years.

    Back2Basics:

    ningaloo

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  • Africa’s splitting plates could give birth to a new Ocean: Study

    africa

    Central idea

    • Scientists predict a new ocean will be created as Africa splits into two separate parts connected to the East African Rift
    • This geological process will inevitably divide the continent resulting in new coastlines and sub-sea internet infrastructure but also will have significant repercussions

    What is Rifting?

    • The Earth’s lithosphere, comprising the crust and upper part of the mantle, is divided into tectonic plates that move in relation to each other at varying speeds.
    • Tectonic forces move the plates and can cause them to rupture, resulting in the formation of a rift and potentially leading to the creation of new plate boundaries.
    • Rifting refers to the geological process in which a single tectonic plate is split into two or more plates separated by divergent plate boundaries.
    • In the present day, the gradual separation of the Somali and Nubian tectonic plates is leading to the formation of a rift that could eventually lead to the creation of a new ocean basin.
    • The movement of tectonic plates is a fascinating geological phenomenon.

    Rifting in African Continent

    • The African continent is located on the African Plate, which is one of the Earth’s major tectonic plates.
    • The continent is characterized by a number of geological features, including rift valleys.

    Most profound feature: The East African Rift System

    • The East African Rift System is the most prominent example of rifting in Africa.
    • It stretches for over 6,000 kilometers from the Red Sea in the north to the Zambezi River in the south.
    • The rift system includes a series of interconnected rift valleys, volcanoes, and lakes.

    Causes of the East African Rift System

    • The rift system is caused by the movement of the African Plate away from the Arabian Plate and the Somalian Plate.
    • This movement creates tension in the Earth’s crust, causing it to pull apart and form a rift.

    Impact: Lakes Formed by Rifting

    • Over time, the rifting process has led to the formation of several large lakes in the region.
    • These lakes include Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, and Lake Malawi.
    • They are believed to have formed as a result of the sinking of the land between the rift valleys.

    Future of Rifting in Africa

    • The rifting process is ongoing and may eventually lead to the splitting of the African continent into two or more separate land masses.
    • However, this process is expected to take millions of years and is not likely to have a significant impact on human populations in the near future.
    • The necessary evacuation of people and potential loss of lives will be an unfortunate cost of this natural phenomenon.
    • The emergence of new coastlines will unlock opportunities for economic growth
    • As the plates continue to split in the future, this phenomenon will result in the displacement of communities, settlements, and various flora and fauna.

    Conclusion

    • The movement of tectonic plates has significant implications for the continent’s future.
    • It is important to study and monitor these changes while remembering the power of the Earth’s natural forces and the impact they can have over time.
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  • States demand that ‘Lightning’ be declared a Natural Disaster

    Central idea: A few states have requested lightning to be declared a natural disaster due to the high number of deaths caused by it in the country.

    Why discuss this?

    • Around 2,500 people die every year due to lightning.
    • Present norms consider cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, fires, floods, tsunamis, hailstorms, landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts, pest attacks, frost, and cold waves as disasters covered under the State Disaster Response Fund.
    • Deliberations are necessary as it is a policy issue.

    What is lightning?

    • Scientifically, lightning is a rapid and massive discharge of electricity in the atmosphere some of which is directed towards earth.
    • The discharges are generated in giant moisture-bearing clouds that are 10-12 km tall.
    • The base of these clouds typically lie within 1-2 km of the Earth’s surface, while the top is 12-13 km away.
    • Temperatures in the top of these clouds are in the range of –35° to –45°C.

    Its formation

    • As water vapour moves upward in the cloud, the falling temperature causes it to condense.
    • As they move to temperatures below 0°C, the water droplets change into small ice crystals.
    • They continue to move up, gathering mass until they are so heavy that they start to fall to Earth.
    • This leads to a system in which, simultaneously, smaller ice crystals are moving up and bigger crystals are coming down.
    • Collisions follow and trigger the release of electrons, a process that is very similar to the generation of sparks of electricity.
    • As the moving free electrons cause more collisions and more electrons, a chain reaction ensues.
    • This process results in a situation in which the top layer of the cloud gets positively charged, while the middle layer is negatively charged.
    • The electrical potential difference between the two layers is huge, of the order of a billion to 10 billion volts.
    • In very little time, a massive current, of the order of 100,000 to a million amperes, starts to flow between the layers.

    Types of lightning

    • Broadly, there are three forms of lightning:
    1. Inter-cloud
    2. Intra-cloud
    3. Cloud-to-ground
    • It is the cloud-to-ground form of lightning that kills humans, as well as animals and livestock, and can substantially damage property.
    • While the Earth is a good conductor of electricity, it is electrically neutral.
    • However, in comparison to the middle layer of the cloud, it becomes positively charged.
    • As a result, about 15%-20% of the current gets directed towards the Earth as well.
    • It is this flow of current that results in damage to life and property on Earth.

    How intensely does it strike?

    • A typical lightning flash is about 300 million volts and30,000 amps.
    • To put it in perspective, household current is 120 volts and 15 amps.
    • A flash of lightning is enough to light a 100-watt incandescent bulb for about three months.

    Why does lightning kill so many people in India?

    • The reason for the high number of deaths is due to people being caught unawares and more than 70% of fatalities happened due to people standing under isolated tall trees.
    • About 25 per cent of the people were struck in the open.
    • Also, lightning is the direct promulgation of climate change extremities.

    Mitigating lightning incidents

    • Lightning is not classified as a natural disaster in India.
    • But recent efforts have resulted in the setting up of an early warning system that is already saving many lives.
    • More than 96% of lightning deaths happen in rural areas.
    • As such, most of the mitigation and public awareness programmes need to focus on these communities.
    • Lightning protection devices are fairly unsophisticated and low-cost. Yet, their deployment in the rural areas, as of now, is extremely low.
    • States are being encouraged to prepare and implement lightning action plans, on the lines of heat action plans.
    • An international centre for excellence on lightning research to boost detection and early warning systems is also in the process of being set up.

  • ISRO releases Landslide Atlas of India

    landslide

    The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) recently released the Landslide Atlas of India to identify landslide hotspots in the country.

    What are Landslides?

    • Landslides are natural disasters that occur in mountainous terrains where soil, rock, geology, and slope conditions are conducive.
    • A landslide is the sudden movement of rock, boulders, earth, or debris down a slope.
    • They can be triggered by natural causes such as heavy rainfall, earthquakes, snowmelting, and undercutting of slopes due to flooding.
    • They are extremely hazardous, posing a threat to human and animal lives, damaging property, roads, and bridges, disrupting communication lines, and snapping power lines.
    • Landslides are broadly classified based on the type of materials involved, the type of movement of the material, and the type of flow of the material.

    Why do they occur?

    • Landslides are natural disasters that occur mainly in mountainous terrains due to conducive conditions of soil, rock, geology, and slope.
    • Heavy rainfall, earthquakes, snow-melting, and undercutting of slopes due to flooding can trigger landslides.
    • Anthropogenic activities such as excavation, cutting of hills and trees, excessive infrastructure development, and overgrazing by cattle can also cause landslides.

    Factors contributing

    • The main factors that influence landslides include lithology, geological structures like faults, hill slopes, drainage, geomorphology, land use and land cover, soil texture and depth, and weathering of rocks.
    • Rainfall variability pattern is the single biggest cause for landslides in India, with the Himalayas and the Western Ghats remaining highly vulnerable.

    India’s vulnerability to landslides

    • India is considered among the top five landslide-prone countries globally, where at least one death per 100 sq. km is reported in a year due to a landslide event.
    • Approximately 12.6% of the country’s geographical land area (0.42 million sq km) is prone to landslides, with 66.5% of landslides reported from the North-western Himalayas, 18.8% from the North-eastern Himalayas, and 14.7% from the Western Ghats.

    Risks in specific states          

    • Mizoram recorded the highest number of landslide events in the past 25 years, with 12,385 events, of which 8,926 were recorded in 2017 alone.
    • Nagaland and Manipur also reported a high number of landslide events during the 2017 monsoon season.
    • Uttarakhand and Kerala reported the highest number of landslides, with Uttarakhand experiencing 11,219 events since 1998, and Kerala making inhabitants significantly vulnerable to fatalities, despite fewer events.

    Classification and Mapping of Landslides

    • Landslides are broadly classified based on the type of materials involved, type of movement, type of flow of the material, and whether they spread laterally.
    • The Landslide Atlas of India maps landslides mainly based on events and seasons.
    • The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) used a landslide database created from 1998 to 2022 using aerial and high-resolution satellite images.

     

  • Turkey hit by series of powerful Earthquakes: The science behind it

    turkey

    More than 4000 people died and several hundred were injured after a major earthquake of magnitude 7.8 hit south-central Turkey and Northwest Syria.

    What is an Earthquake?

    • An earthquake is an intense shaking of the ground caused by movement under the earth’s surface.
    • It happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another.
    • This releases stored-up ‘elastic strain’ energy in the form of seismic waves, which spreads through the earth and cause the shaking of the ground.

    What exactly causes Earthquakes?

    • As we know, the earth’s outermost surface, crust, is fragmented into tectonic plates.
    • The edges of the plates are called plate boundaries, which are made up of faults.
    • The tectonic plates constantly move at a slow pace, sliding past one another and bumping into each other.
    • As the edges of the plates are quite rough, they get stuck with one another while the rest of the plate keeps moving.
    • Earthquake occurs when the plate has moved far enough and the edges unstick on one of the faults.
    • The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicentre.

    How prone is Turkey to Earthquakes?

    • Turkey and Syria lie in a seismically active region
    • The region where the earthquake has struck lies along a well-known seismic fault line called the Anatolia tectonic block that runs through northern, central, and eastern Turkey.
    • It is a seismically active zone — though not as active as, say, the Himalayan region which is one of the most dangerous regions in the world from the perspective of earthquakes.

    What makes Turkey a hotbed of seismic activity?

    turkey

    • Turkey is frequently shaken by earthquakes. In 2020 itself, it recorded almost 33,000 earthquakes in the region.
    • Turkey is located on the Anatolian tectonic plate, which is wedged between the Eurasian and African plates.
    • On the north side, the minor Arabian plate further restricts movement.
    • One fault line — the North Anatolian fault (NAF) line, the meeting point of the Eurasian and Anatolian tectonic plates — is known to be “particularly devastating”.
    • Then there is the East Anatolian fault line, the tectonic boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the northward-moving Arabian Plate.
    • It runs 650 kilometers from eastern Turkey and into the Mediterranean.
    • In addition to this, the Aegean Sea Plate, located in the eastern Mediterranean Sea under southern Greece and western Turkey, is also a source of seismic activity in the region.

    Where was the earthquake epicentered?

    • The centre of the earthquake was centred about 33 km from Gaziantep, around 18 km deep.
    • Its effect was felt across West Asia, Northern Africa and South Eastern Europe with residents of Lebanon, Cyprus, Greece, Israel and Egypt also reporting tremors.

    Aftermath: Many Aftershocks hits the region

    • Aftershocks are a sequence of earthquakes that happen after a larger mainshock on a fault.
    • Aftershocks occur near the fault zone where the mainshock rupture occurred and are part of the “readjustment process” after the main slip on the fault.
    • While they become less frequent with time, although they can continue for days, weeks, months, or even years for a very large mainshock.

    Can earthquakes be predicted?

    • An accurate prediction of an earthquake requires some sort of a precursory signal from within the earth that indicates a big quake is on the way.
    • Moreover, the signal must occur only before large earthquakes so that it doesn’t indicate every small movement within the earth’s surface.
    • Currently, there is no equipment to find such precursors, even if they exist.

    India offers assistance

    • India is among the 45 countries, which have so far offered assistance to Turkey.
    • It’s sending search and rescue teams of the National Disaster Relief Force (NDRF) and medical teams along with relief material to the West Asian nation.

  • Earth’s inner core rotating slower than surface: Study

    earth

    Earth’s inner core, a hot iron ball the size of Pluto, has stopped spinning faster than the planet’s surface and might now be rotating slower than it, research suggested.

    A quick recap of Earth’s Interior

    earth

    Structure of earth’s interior is fundamentally divided into three layers – crust, mantle and core.

    [A] Crust

    • It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
    • It is brittle in nature.
    • Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made of the crust.
    • The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different. Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust (about 30kms).
    • Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is often termed as SIAL(Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the region comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
    • The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
    • The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crustis termed as the Conrad Discontinuity.

     [B] Mantle

    • The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
    • The discontinuity between the crust and mantleis called as the Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
    • The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
    • Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by the mantle.
    • The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it is also termed as SIMA.
    • The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
    • The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust constitute the Lithosphere.
    • The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile, deforming region of the upper mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
    • The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which the lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).
    • The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower mantleis known as Repetti Discontinuity.
    • The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and asthenosphere, but above the core is called as Mesosphere.

    [C] Core

    • It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
    • The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s Discontinuity.
    • It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as NIFE.
    • It constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass.
    • It is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
    • It spins independently because it floats in the liquid metal outer core. One cycle of the swing is about seven decades approximately.
    • It consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
    • The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-liquid).
    • The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as Lehmann Discontinuity.
    • Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the whole interior.

    What should one understand about the interior of the earth?

    • It is not possible to know about the earth’s interior by direct observations because of the huge size and the changing nature of its interior composition.
    • It is an almost impossible distance for the humans to reach till the centre of the earth (The earth’s radius is 6,370 km).
    • The rapid increase in temperature below the earth’s surface is mainly responsible for setting a limit to direct observations inside the earth.

    Sources of Information about the interior of the earth

    Direct Sources:

    1. Rocks from mining area
    2. Volcanic eruptions

    Indirect Sources

    1. By analyzing the rate of change of temperature and pressurefrom the surface towards the interior.
    2. Meteors, as they belong to the same type of materials earth is made of.
    3. Gravitation, which is greater near poles and less at the equator.
    4. Gravity anomaly, which is the change in gravity value according to the mass of material, gives us information about the materials in the earth’s interior.
    5. Magnetic sources.
    6. Seismic Waves: the shadow zones of body waves (Primary and secondary waves) give us information about the state of materials in the interior.

    What is the new study about?

    • Exactly how the inner core rotates has been a matter of debate between scientists— and the latest research is expected to prove controversial.
    • A new research has analyzed seismic waves from repeating earthquakes over the last six decades.
    • It shows that- the inner core started rotating slightly faster than the rest of the planet in the early 1970s, the study said.
    • But it had been slowing down before coming in sync with Earth’s rotation around 2009.

    What made the core spin slower?

    • So far there is little to indicate that what the inner core does has many effects on surface dwellers.
    • The researchers said this rotation timeline roughly lines up with changes in what is called the “length of day”— small variations in the exact time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis.
    • But the researchers said they believed there were physical links between all of Earth’s layers, from the inner core to the surface.

     

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  • EIA must before allowing urban development projects: SC

    The Supreme Court has urged legislators and policy experts to ensure that Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) studies are done before giving the green signal for urban development projects in India’s cities.

    What is the news?

    • The Supreme Court how haphazard urban development has ruined the ‘Garden City’ of Bengaluru as witnessed during a major spell of rain in September 2022.
    • The court said that the city struggled for drinking water while it lay submerged after the downpour.

    Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) defines it as,

    a formal process to predict the environmental consequences of human development activities and to plan appropriate measures to eliminate or reduce adverse effects and to augment positive effects.

    • Thus, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an integral part of Environmental Management. It investigates likely impacts, both positive and negative, of development projects on the surrounding environment.
    • Simply put, EIA is a detailed study regarding the impacts of any project on the environment. It serves as a decision-making tool which helps policy makers approve, reject or find an alternative to a project

    EIA

    In India, Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) is notified under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.

    Evolution of EIA 

    • The origin of EIA lies in the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act(NEPA) in the year 1969 in the USA. It not only introduced the concept of environmental impact assessment but also made it necessary for federal agencies to evaluate impact of environmental decisions.
    • Environment Impact Assessment gained popularity after the introduction of the concept of sustainable developmentvia World Commission on Environment 1987 & United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summit) in 1992. It led to adoption of EIA in many countries as well. Principle 17 of the Rio Summit states that,
    • Environmental impact assessment (EIA), as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority. [Given just for your info. No need to remember this type of complex language.Instead, you can mention that EIA is mentioned explicitly under Principle 17 of the Rio declaration of 1992].
    • In 1976-77, EIA was started in India, when the Department of Science and Technology was asked by Planning Commission to examine the river-valley projects from the environmental angle.
    • Eventually n 1994, EIA was made mandatory in India under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. Until then, environmental clearance from the Central Government was an administrative decision and had no legislative backing.
    • Since then, EIA has been amended several times. The most significant amendment was made in 2006

    EIA Process

    Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) process can vary depending on a country’s policy and requirement. However, EIA process in most countries, including India, have the following steps:

    1. Screening
    2. Scoping
    3. Collection of baseline data
    4. Impact Prediction
    5. Assessment of alternatives, mitigation measures & Environmental, Impact Assessment Report
    6. Public Hearing
    7. Decision Making
    8. Monitoring the clearance conditions

    Screening: This is the first step in the EIA process. At this stage it is decided whether the proposed project needs an EIA and if so to what detail. Screening criteria are based upon:

    • Scales of investment
    • Type of development
    • Location of development

    Scoping: It is the most significant step in the entire EIA process as key environmental issues involved are identified at this stage.

    • Scoping has to be done by consultants in consultation with the project proponent and guidance, if needed, from Impact Assessment Agency
    • The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published sector-wise guidelines which outline the significant issues which have to be addressed while conducting the EIA studies.
    • At the end of scoping, detailed terms of reference (TOR) are prepared of EIA.
    • TOR is a written document containing written requirements governing EIA implementation, consultations to be held, data to be gathered, methodology to be used etc

    Involved in Environmental Impact Assessment

    Collection of baseline data: It describes the existing environmental status of the identified study area. The site-specific primary data is monitored and supplemented with secondary data

    Impact prediction: Under this, possible effects on the physical, biological, social and economic conditions are taken into consideration and measures are suggested to prevent, reduce or compensate for the impacts.

    For example:

    • Impact of biological diversity in an area ex. EIA done by Gadgil panel on the western ghats regions.
    • Impact on habitat because of deforestation and pollution- Impact on Himalayan ecosystem when hydropower projects are opened.
    • Impact on endangered animals and migratory paths. For ex Great India hornbill’s trail in India is evaluated so as to see that such developmental project is not affecting its pathway.
    • The predictions of impact can never be absolute and certain and thus there is a need to comprehensively consider all factors and take all possible precautions for reducing the degree of uncertainty.

    Assessment of alternatives, mitigation measures & Environmental Impact Assessment Report: Identification of alternatives and their comparison: For every project, possible alternatives are to be identified and environmental impacts and benefits to be compared.

    • Alternatives should then be ranked for selection of the best environmental option for optimum economic benefits to the community at large.
    • Environment Management Plan (EMP): Once alternatives have been reviewed, an impact mitigation plan is drawn up for the selected option and is supplemented with an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards environmental improvements. EMP is a crucial input to monitoring the clearance conditions and therefore details of monitoring should be included in it.
    • EMP is a site-specific plan developed to ensure that the project is implemented in an environmentally sustainable manner where all contractors and subcontractors, including consultants understand the potential environmental risks arising from the project and take appropriate actions to properly manage that risk.
    • An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report prepared at this stage should provide clear information to the decision maker on the different environmental scenarios without the project, with the project and with project alternatives.

    Public Hearing: Public must be informed and consulted on a proposed development after the completion of EIA report

    • Gram Sabha must be consulted before the project starts. Gram Sabha means the electorate (people eligible to vote) of the region

    Decision-making: It involves consultations between the project proponent (assisted by a consultant) and the impact assessment authority (assisted by an expert group if necessary). Final decision regarding the project is taken, keeping in mind EIA and EMP (Environment Management Plan).

    Monitoring: Monitoring should be done during both construction and operation phases of a project. This is not only to ensure that the commitments made are complied with but also to observe whether the predictions made in the EIA reports were correct or not.

    • Where the impacts exceed the predicted levels, corrective action should be taken.
    • Monitoring enables the regulatory agency to review the validity of predictions and the conditions of implementation of the Environmental Management Plan (EMP).

    Objective of EIA

    • To bring out a national policy to encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and environment.
    • To promote efforts to prevent or eliminate damage to the environment.
    • To increase understanding of ecological systems and natural resources important to the nation

    Why we need Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)? / Significance of EIA / Benefits of EIA

    • Facilitates sustainable development: In present times anthropogenic activities like rapid industrialization, mass production and clearing of forests have created immense pressure on the natural environment. Tools like EIA help in balancing the need for economic growth with equally important concept of sustainability.
    • Mitigating negative impacts & informed decision-making– Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) helps in minimizing the negative impact of various development projects. It enables monitoring programmes to be established to assess future impacts and provide data on which managers can take informed decisions to avoid environmental damage.
    • Aids cost-effectiveness– EIA helps in selection and design of projects, programmes or plans with long term viability and therefore improves cost effectiveness.
    • Advance assessments also helps avoid future losses that may be incurred if the project is found environmentally unacceptable at a later stage. Cost of adaptation when a project is already running is usually more.

    Thus, EIA as a tool aims to minimize the environmental impacts emanating out of any economic activity that have the potential to cause environmental degradation.

    Environmental Components

    Rapid EIA vs Comprehensive EIA

    The difference is in the time scale of the data supplied. But both types require complete coverage of all EIA procedures

    • Rapid EIA: Under Rapid EIA data supplied is of only one season(other than monsoon) to reduce the time required. Rapid EIA is for speedier appraisal process.
    • Comprehensive EIA: It collects data from all four seasons.Rapid EIA is acceptable if it does not compromise upon the quality of decision making. The review of Rapid EIA submissions will show whether a comprehensive EIA is warranted or not. Therefore, submission of comprehensive EIA in the first stance would generally be more efficient approach. Comprehensive EIA includes appraisal of those projects whose analysis in not to be done soon, here time is not the essential factor but the quality of the appraisal is.

    EIA notifications

    Central govt has the power to issue EIA notifications under Section 3 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986, wherein it can impose restrictions on setting up new projects or expansion or modernisation of existing projects. The section stipulates that such measures must benefit the environment.

    Under the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, first EIA notification was issued in 1994. Later, it was replaced by a modified draft in 2006

    Salient Features of EIA rules Amendment done in 2006 

    • Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 decentralized the environmental clearance projects by categorizing the developmental projects in two categories i.e., Category Aand Category B

    Salient features of EIA

    After 2006 Amendment, EIA comprises of four cycles:

    • Screening
    • Scoping
    • Public Hearing
    • Appraisal
    • State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) are constituted to provide clearance to category B projects.
    • Category A Projects require mandatory environmental clearance. Screening process is not required.
    • Category B projects undergo screening process. They are classified in two types:
    • Category B1 Projects: Mandatorily require EIA
    • Category B2 Projects: Do not require EIA

    Thus,

    • Category Aprojects and category B1 projects undergo the complete EIA process
    • Category B2projects are excluded from complete EIA process

    This 2006 EIA notification has undergone several amendments over last 14 years. A new draft EIA Notification 2020 has been floated by the govt. It is meant to incorporate the amendments and court orders issued since 2006.

    Major Provisions of draft EIA notification 2020

    • Public Consultation 
    • Period of public consultation hearings is proposed to be reduced to a maximum of 40 days.
    • Time provided for the public to submit their responses is proposed to be reduced from present 30 to 20 days.
    • Rationale by the govt: the shorter window was “in tune with the times”, given the growth of internet and mobile telephony.
    • Concern: Several environmental activists and organisations have instead argued that even the 30-day timeframe was inadequate as information failed to reach the stakeholders residing in remote and inaccessible terrains
    • More discretionary powers to government
    • Central government can declare “economically sensitive areas” without public hearing or environmental clearance
    • Government also gets to decide which projects are to be considered “strategic”.
    • Post-facto clearance: Legalisation of projects that have commenced operations without obtaining necessary clearances; subject to a payment of penalty.

    Supreme court’s view on post–facto clearance –

    • In a judgment in early 2020, in the case of Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd vs Rohit Prajapati,the Supreme Court by also referring to Common Cause vs. Union of India judgment, struck down and condemned ex-post facto environmental clearance (a concept which the new draft EIA proposes to regularise).
    • In 2013, the Hon’ble Supreme Court in the case of Association for Environmental Protection vs State of Kerala, held that commencement of projects without obtaining prior EC (environmental clearance) is a violation of the fundamental right to lifeguaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution

     

    • Post-clearance compliance: Post-clearance compliance implies that once a project gets approved by the concerned authority, the proponent projects are required to adhere to certain rules laid down in the EIA report in order to ensure that no further environmental damages take place.
    • The new draft EIA, contrary to the 2006 notification — which required submission of the compliance report every six months, proposes annual reports. 
    • Concern: Environmental experts are of the view that allowing a longer period for filling the compliance report will give an opportunity to project proponents to hide disastrous consequences, which could go unnoticed

     

    • Exemption clause: It identifies a long list of projects like roads and pipelines in border areas which have been exempted from public consultation and prior clearance.
    • Concern: Analysts note that by this provision, the government shall have discretion to designate any project as being of strategic importance. Activists in states with crucial resources like uranium, as in Meghalaya, have also opposed this provision

     

    • Baseline Data: Does away with the need to carry out studies covering all seasons in a year

    In the 2019 ‘Ease of Doing Business’ report by the World Bank, India rose steadily from 142nd ranking in 2014 to 63rd ranking in 2019. India, however, has steadily declined on Environment Performance Index, from 141st rank in 2016 to 168th rank out of 180 countries in 2020.

    The government has assured that it will strive to strike a balance between the environmental and developmental concerns. As and when the EIA is finalised, it is expected to incorporate the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in a balanced manner.

    Shortcomings of the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) process

    Applicability: There are several projects with environmental impacts that are exempted from the notifications. Ex. Low scale sand mining

    Inadequate capacity of EIA approval authorities: Lack of technical and environmental experts, anthropologists and social scientists among the members and involvement of crony capitalism and nexus between corporates and politicians leads to faulty decision making, where projects which severe harm the environment may also get approved.

    Deficiencies in screening, scoping and impact analysis: There are no independent bodies and no standardized formats for project evaluation.

    • Absence of standardized baseline data brings arbitrariness in impact prediction.
    • It is allegedly done by those people which are on the payroll of company which creates a conflict of interest. They intentionally exclude negative impact on forests/ environment and impact on tribes during the scoping process

    Poor quality EIA reports: EIA is presently used as a project justification tool rather than as a project planning tool to contribute to achieving sustainable development. Involvement of planning for future activities should also be focused upon along with the justification of the project itself.

    • EIA is not just a tool to describe YES or NO regarding a project but also about how the harm, if any, to the environment can be minimized, so as to be pollution-neutral and environmentally sustainable.

    Initiated at a later stage: Another flaw in the EIA process in India is that it is undertaken at a much later stage, especially after the project has been designed, approved and almost ready for construction. Thus, by the time EIA starts huge costs are incurred and the project becomes too big to fall.

    Inadequate public participation: In many countries like Nepal, Argentina and Australia, public involvement is mandatory at various stages of the EIA process (i.e., screening, scoping, report preparation and decision making), but in India public consultation occurs only once during the entire process. According to the EIA notification 2006, this public consultation is performed in two ways.

    • First, written comments are sought on draft EIA report from stakeholders
    • Second, public hearing is conducted at or near the proposed project site.

    Drawbacks of this system:

    • Public consultation is done after the preparation of draft EIA reportand when it is ready for final submission to the expert committee.
    • Also, the notification issued for public hearing are not published in local vernacular languagesthus keeping it out of the scope of understanding of locals.

    Weak monitoring: Monitoring is not done through an independent agency. Environment management plans of strategic industries like nuclear energy are not put into the public domain.

    How can we strengthen the EIA process?

    1.Independent Agency: Entire EIA process right from screening to monitoring should be done by independent agencies and establishing a National Accreditation Body for agencies carrying out EIA.

    • Creation of centralized baseline data bank

    2.Applying Precautionary Principle: This principle states that if there is a threat of serious damage (in this case, to the environment) from a particular action then a lack of scientific certainty should not be used to avoid taking steps to prevent that damage. Hence, the list of concerns raised by the public should be studied in detail to arrive at any conclusion. Ex. GM crops.

    • Clearances given to project that is not clearly justified becomes questionable as happened in Sethusamudram Project

    3.Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA): It helps in choosing a project and not just evaluate it. It offers alternatives and guides project financing. The directives of SEA are reflected in the National Environment Policy 2006. Similarly, Nepal also carries out SEA’s.

    • A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a systematic process for evaluating the environmental implications of a proposed policy, planor programme

    4.Robust and Inclusive public hearing: A key role for local people through Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) at every stage. Special focus on forests and tribal. The traditional knowledge of locals needs to be incorporated.

    5.Transparency: Greater transparency in the clearance process and dissemination of all documents for public scrutiny.

    6.Capacity Building: NGO’s, civil society groups and local communities need to build their capacities to use the EIA notification towards better decision-making on projects that can impact their local environments and livelihoods. Capacities can be built to proactively and effectively use the notification rather than respond in a manner that is seen as negative or unproductive.

    Way forward

    In a world that is challenged by environmental degradation and social conflicts, scholars have upheld public and local participation to be a “threshold condition” for development. EIA provides this necessary element in the economic development process. Therefore, EIA-based approvals for most projects should mandatorily and necessarily involve the process of conducting public hearings so that the views and opinions of people who are likely to be affected can be taken on board before a decision to approve the project is made so as to reduce future scope of resentment.

     

  • In news: Bhopal Gas Leak Tragedy

    bhopal

    The Supreme Court has grilled the Centre on how the settlement can be reopened, when Union Carbide has already paid over $ 470 million to the Bhopal gas tragedy victims, and also expressed concern over Rs 50 crore undisbursed funds.

    Why in news?

    • Union Carbide, now a part of Dow Jones – has not fulfilled its responsibility in terms of providing just compensation.
    • Around 19 years after compensation was agreed upon, the Indian government filed a curative petition in 2010 to seek additional compensation from Dow, of more than ten times the amount it gave in 1989.

    Bhopal Gas Tragedy

    • On the night of December 2, 1984, one of the biggest industrial disasters to ever take place began unfolding in Bhopal.
    • Harmful Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas started leaking from a nearby Union Carbide pesticide plant, eventually resulting in the Bhopal Gas tragedy.
    • An estimated 3,000 people died within the first few days.
    • Over time, similarly horrifying numbers of those who suffered life-long health issues would become known.

    Health hazards of the disaster

    • Its effects were such that apart from killing thousands of people in a short span of time, it led to disease and other long-term problems for many who inhaled the gas.
    • The sources of water around the factory were deemed unfit for consumption and many handpumps were sealed.
    • To date, the reproductive health of many of Bhopal’s women has been affected.
    • Children born to those exposed to the gas have faced congenital health problems.

    How did govt respond to the disaster?

    The incident pointed to the lack of specific laws in India at the time for handling such matters.  This changed after Bhopal.

    • Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: It authorised the central government to take relevant measures and regulate industrial activity for environmental and public safety.
    • Public Liability Insurance Act of 1991: It was also passed to provide public liability insurance for providing immediate relief to the persons affected by an accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance.

     

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  • What is Joshimath Crisis?

    joshimath

    Many families living in Uttarakhand’s Joshimath has shifted to safe places after their homes developed deep cracks, leaving them in a panicked state.

    Joshimath Crisis

    • Joshimath lies on an ancient landslide, resting on a deposit of sand and stone, not rock.
    • The rivers Alaknanda and Dhauli Ganga play their part in triggering landslides, by eroding the river banks and mountain edges.
    • It is believed that increased construction activity and growing population have contributed to frequent landslides in the area, the 1976 Mishra Committee Report had pointed out.

    What is Land Subsidence?

    • Land subsidence is when the ground sinks or settles.
    • It can happen because people are taking too much water or minerals from the ground, which causes the ground to sink.
    • It can also be caused by natural processes, like soil compaction or the movement of the earth’s crust.
    • Land subsidence can cause problems like damage to buildings and roads, and can make it more likely for flooding to occur.

    Why is it sinking?

    • Joshimath is a deposit of sand and stone — it is not the main rock — hence it was not suitable for a township.
    • Vibrations produced by blasting, heavy traffic, etc. has led to a disequilibrium in natural factors.
    • Lack of proper drainage facilities also leads to landslides.
    • A lot of water has been percolating down into the porous crystalline rocks beneath the surface, softening them further.
    • When water is not allowed to flow down its natural course, it creates a lot of pressure, either over the ground, or underneath.
    • The existence of soak pits, which allow water to slowly soak into the ground, is responsible for the creation of cavities between the soil and the boulders.
    • This leads to water seepage and soil erosion.

    Issues with Joshimath’s town-planning

    • Overt tourism: The place is now the hub of tourists headed to at least three important shrines — Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and Shankaracharya temple — as a result of which major infrastructure development has taken place.
    • Ignoring topography: There are lots of loose soft rocks, moraine (material left behind by retreating glaciers), and sediments. The soil is, therefore, not ideal for large constructions.
    • Seismically active area: Added to this is the fact that the area falls in a highly seismic zone, and experiences regular tremors, making the top soil unstable.

    Preventing a disaster

    1976 Mishra Committee Report suggested-

    • Imposition of restrictions on heavy construction: Construction should only be allowed after examining the load-bearing capacity of the soil and the stability of the site, and restrictions should also be imposed on the excavation of slopes.
    • Keeping the boulders: In the landslide areas, stones and boulders should not be removed from the bottom of the hill as it would remove toe support, increasing the possibility of landslides.
    • Sealing of cracks: Cracks which have developed on the slopes should be sealed. The toe of a landslide is its bottom-most point.
    • Conserving of trees: It has also advised against cutting trees in the landslide zone, and said that extensive plantation work should be undertaken in the area, particularly between Marwari and Joshimath, to conserve soil and water resources.
    • Agriculture on the slopes must be avoided: Activities like ploughing loosens the soil thereby triggering the scope for landslides.
    • Preventing water seepage: To prevent any more landslides in the future, the seepage of open rain water must be stopped by the construction of a pucca drainage system.
    • Cobbled roads: Roads should be metalled and without scuppers, that drain away the water from the road surface.
    • River training: The construction of structures to guide the river’s flow should be carried out. Hanging boulders on the foothills should be provided with appropriate support.

    Way forward

    • Ensuring safety of people: This should be immediate priority. State government should establish a clear and continuous communication channel with the affected people.
    • Time-bound reconstruction plan must be prepared.
    • Continuous seismic monitoring must be done.
    • A risk sensitive urban development plan for Joshimath should also be developed.

     

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  • What is Winter Solstice?

    solstice

    Today, December 21, is Winter Solstice, the shortest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, conversely, it was Summer Solstice, the year’s longest day.

    What is Winter Solstice?

    • The winter solstice, also called the hibernal solstice, occurs when either of Earth’s poles reaches its maximum tilt away from the Sun.
    • This happens twice yearly, once in each hemisphere.

    What are Solstices?

    • Solstices occur because Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted about 23.4 degrees relative to Earth’s orbit around the sun.
    • This tilt drives our planet’s seasons, as the Northern and Southern Hemispheres get unequal amounts of sunlight over the course of a year.
    • From March to September, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted more toward the sun, driving its spring and summer.
    • From September to March, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away, so it feels like autumn and winter.
    • The Southern Hemisphere’s seasons are reversed.
    • On two moments each year—what are called solstices—Earth’s axis is tilted most closely toward the sun.

    Impact on day-time

    • The hemisphere tilted most toward our home star sees its longest day, while the hemisphere tilted away from the sun sees its longest night.
    • During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer solstice—which always falls around June 21—the Southern Hemisphere gets its winter solstice.
    • Likewise, during the Northern Hemisphere’s winter solstice—which always falls around December 22—the Southern Hemisphere gets its summer solstice.

    Impact of the tilted axis

    • The Northern Hemisphere spends half the year tilted in the direction of the Sun, getting direct sunlight during long summer days.
    • During the other half of the year, it tilts away from the Sun, and the days are shorter.
    • Winter Solstice, December 21, is the day when the North Pole is most tilted away from the Sun.
    • The tilt is also responsible for the different seasons that we see on Earth.
    • The side facing the Sun experiences day, which changes to night as Earth continues to spin on its axis.

    Un-impacted regions

    • On the Equator, day and night are equal. The closer one moves towards the poles, the more extreme the variation.
    • During summer in either hemisphere, that pole is tilted towards the Sun and the polar region receives 24 hours of daylight for months.
    • Likewise, during winter, the region is in total darkness for months.

    Celebrations associated with the Winter Solstice

    • For centuries, this day has had a special place in several communities due to its astronomical significance and is celebrated in many ways across the world.
    • Jewish people call the Winter Solstice ‘Tekufat Tevet’, which marks the start of winter.
    • Ancient Egyptians celebrated the birth of Horus, the son of Isis (divine mother goddess) for 12 days during mid-winter.
    • In China, the day is celebrated by families coming together for a special meal.
    • In the Persian region, it is celebrated as Yalda or Shab-e-Yalda. The festival marks the last day of the Persian month of Azar and is seen as the victory of light over darkness.
    • Families celebrate Yalda late into the night with special foods such as ajeel nuts, pomegranates and watermelon, and recite works of the 14th-century Sufi poet Hafiz Shirazi.

    In Vedic tradition

    • In Vedic tradition, the northern movement of the Earth on the celestial sphere is implicitly acknowledged in the Surya Siddhanta.
    • It outlines the Uttarayana (the period between Makar Sankranti and Karka Sankranti). Hence, Winter Solstice is the first day of Uttarayana.

     

    Try this MCQ:

    Q. On 21st June, the Sun

    (a) Does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle

    (b) Does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

    (c) Shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator

    (d) Shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”g83sek2y9c” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

     

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