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Subject: Geography

  • Places in news: Mount Sinabung

    Indonesia’s Mount Sinabung volcano sent a cloud of hot ash as high as 3 km today, in its first big eruption since August last year.

    Mount Sinabung

    • It is a Pleistocene-to-Holocene stratovolcano in the Karo plateau of Karo Regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia.
    • It is created by the subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate under the Eurasian Plate.
    • It erupted in 2010 after a 400-year-long hiatus and has been continuously active since September 2013.

    Why frequent eruptions?

    • Indonesia straddles the “Pacific ring of fire” with nearly130 active volcanoes, more than any other country.
    • Sinabung had been inactive for centuries before it erupted again in 2010.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Consider the following statements:

    1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
    2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar
    3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (CSP 2018)

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1 and 3

    What is the Pacific ring of fire?

    • The Pacific Ring of Fire is a region around much of the rim of the Pacific Ocean where many volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur.
    • It includes the Pacific coasts of South America, North America and Kamchatka, and some islands in the western Pacific Ocean.
    • It is a direct result of plate tectonics: specifically the movement, collision and destruction of lithospheric plates under and around the Pacific Ocean.
    • The collisions have created a nearly continuous series of subduction zones, where volcanoes are created and earthquakes occur.

  • What is Laschamp Excursion?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in DownToEarth.

    The world experienced a few centuries of apocalyptic conditions 42,000 years ago, triggered by a reversal of the Earth’s magnetic poles combined with changes in the Sun’s behaviour. This event is called as Laschamps Excursion.

    Try this PYQ from CSP 2018:

    Q.The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of

    (a) Widespread monoculture Practices agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.

    (b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.

    (c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivationin other Parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss offood biodiversity.

    (d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss, natural habitats, destructionof ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.

    Laschamp Excursion

    • The Laschamp event was a geomagnetic excursion (a short reversal of the Earth’s magnetic field). It occurred 41,400 years ago, during the end of the Last Glacial Period.
    • This event is named after the village where it was discovered in the French Massif Central.
    • It led to series of catastrophic events like the ozone layer was destroyed, electrical storms raged across the tropics, solar winds generated spectacular light shows (auroras), Arctic air poured across North America, ice sheets and glaciers surged and weather patterns shifted violently.
    • During these events, life on earth was exposed to intense ultraviolet light, Neanderthals and giant animals known as megafauna went extinct, while modern humans sought protection in caves.

    The Adams Event

    • This last major geomagnetic reversal triggered a series of dramatic events that have far-reaching consequences for our planet.
    • Because of the coincidence of seemingly random cosmic events and the extreme environmental changes found around the world 42,000 years ago, researchers have called this period the “Adams Event”.

  • India and Australia were evolutionary neighbours

    Bhimbetka, which has yielded a fossil of Dickinsonia dating back about 550 million years, is the first time the particular fossilized organism has been recorded in India.

    Why does this fossil matter?

    • It dates back to an era regarded as the precursor to the explosion of life on earth during the Cambrian period.
    • Thus it puts India firmly on the map for studies of the Ediacaran era along with Australia and Russia.

    Here’s what makes the discovery a global milestone:

    (a) Ediacaran Period

    • The finding gives lead about the earliest living species during a period of the earth’s history known as the Ediacaran, named after the Ediacara Hills in South Australia.
    • This is the period in Earth’s history when Dickinsonia and several multicellular organisms existed.
    • It was approximately 635 million years ago (Ma) and 541 Ma, with the living creatures of the era, called vendobionts.

    Now take this opportunity to revise the Geological time scale from your NCERTs. Try differentiating between different era, periods and epoch.

    (b) India’s Proximity to Australia

    • Studies of the rock characteristics in and around Bhimbetka show that they share several characteristics with rocks in Australia.
    • Dickinsonia fossils from India were found by the scientists to be identical to the Rawnsley Quartzite in South Australia.
    • This provides evidence of their age and the proximity of the two landmasses in Gondwanaland in that era.
    • The evidence however did not support reconstructions adjusted for the polar wander phenomenon [which involves motion of continents over geologic time and its impacts].

     Use of Zircon dating

    • The age of fossil rock is determined using Zircon isotopes.
    • Zircon dating of the youngest Maihar sandstone in Madhya Pradesh puts its age at 548 Ma.
    • The lower Bhander group in the Son and Chambal valleys yielded an isotope-derived age for limestones ranging from 978 Ma to 1073 Ma, situating it in the older Tonian period.
    • The Ediacaran period was the precursor to the Cambrian (about 541 Ma to 485.4 Ma) when the earth witnessed an explosion of life forms and much of which makes up modern animal life today.

  • Cost of development in the fragile mountains

    The article explains the relationship between development activities in Uttarakhand and the devastating floods.

    Cause of recent flash flood in Uttarakhand

    • According to Planet Labs, ice along with frozen mud and rocks fell down from a high mountain inside the Nanda Devi Sanctuary, from a height of 5,600 m to 3,300 m.
    • This created an artificial lake within the sanctuary in Rontigad, a tributary of Rishi Ganga.
    • Within eight hours, this lake burst open and its water, laden with mud and stones, rushed through the Rishi Ganga gorge which opens near Reni.
    • Studies say that the current winter season has seen little rain and snow, with temperatures being highest in the last six decades.
    •  So, the effects of chemical weathering were much more active in the higher Himalayas.
    •  There is a possibility of more such events this year.

    Factors responsible

    1) Development with no regard for the environment

    • As a mountain system, the Himalayas have had earthquakes, avalanches, landslides, soil erosion, forest fires and floods, and these are its natural expressions, parts of its being.
    • Except for earthquakes, humans have directly contributed towards aggravating all the other phenomena.
    • The Ravi Chopra committee formed by the SC recommended closure of all the 24 hydro projects in question by Wildlife Institute of India.
    • The SC also formed another committee to look at the impact of the Chaardham road project.
    • Road and hydro projects are being operated in the Himalayas with practically no rigorous research on the ecological history of the area, cost-benefit analysis and many other aspects including displacement of communities, destruction of biodiversity, agricultural land, pastures as well as the cultural heritage of the area.

    Dilution of Environmental Impact Assessment rules

    • Earlier, while independent experts carried out the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), today it is assigned to a government agency, which does the work for other government departments.
    • Furthermore, during the lockdown, the government changed the EIA rules and diluted labour laws (most of the workers in both the affected projects belong to unorganised sector) in the name of pandemic measures.

    2) Climate change

    • Another factor which cannot be overlooked is that of climate change.
    • Studies have suggested that the pace of this change is faster in mountains and fastest in the Himalayas.
    • While earthquakes and weathering work at their own pace, climate change can contribute towards altering their natural speed.

    Need for studying the 2013 calamity

    •  We can look back at the terrible calamity of 2013, and see how it washed away the encroachments in river areas-dams, barrages, tunnels, buildings, roads.
    • The communities paid a much heavier price than what they received in compensation.
    • Further, the 2013 calamity has to be studied and understood in all the other regions and river valleys of Uttarakhand, Western Nepal and Himachal.
    • It was not specific to Kedarnath, although much of the focus was directed there.
    • Till date, we don’t have any white paper on this calamity.
    • The India Meteorological Department failed in its prediction and wrongly announced at the end of the first week of June that the monsoon will reach Uttarakhand by June 27-28.
    • It reached on June 16-17 with 300-400 per cent more rain, a record never heard of before.
    •  24 big and small hydro projects were destroyed.
    • The muck created by these projects was also the cause of their destruction.
    • The road debris, always dumped in rivers, was another cause.
    • The smaller rivers were more aggressive in 2013.

    Consider the question “What are the factors responsible for the devastating floods in the Uttarakhand? Suggest the measures for disaster mitigation.”

    Conclusion

    The Himalayas have been giving us life through water, fertile soil, biodiversity, wilderness and a feel of spirituality. We cannot and should not try to control or dictate the Himalayas.

  • A resilient future for Uttarakhand

    The article discusses the factors that could explain the cause of the recent flash floods in Uttarakhand and suggest the immediate steps to deal with such disasters.

    What makes Uttarakhand vulnerable

    • Days after a glacier burst in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand caused flash floods, the scientific community is still struggling to understand what triggered the disaster.
    • Uttarakhand is located in the midst of young and unstable mountains and is subject to intense rainfall.
    • For years experts have voiced their fears about an impending disaster due to climate change, rapid and indiscriminate construction activities, and the subsequent ecological destruction in the region.
    • Studies have shown that widespread settlements, farming, cattle grazing and other anthropogenic activities could destroy the natural barriers that control avalanches and floods, thereby enhancing the possibilities of a glacial lake outburst flood.
    • The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment Report (2019) had pointed out that one-third of the Hindu Kush Himalaya’s glaciers would melt by 2100 and potentially destabilise the river regime in Asia, even if all the countries in the region fulfilled their commitments under the Paris Agreement.

    Possible causes of the current glacial outburst

    • The current glacier burst was loosely attributed to erosion, a build-up of water pressure, an avalanche of snow or rocks, landslides or an earthquake under the ice.
    • A rock mass, weakened from years of freezing and thawing of snow, may have led to the creation of a weak zone and fractures leading to a collapse that resulted in flash floods.

    Issue of construction activity

    • Experts and activists have incessantly asked for scrutiny into the construction of hydroelectric power projects in Uttarakhand.
    • There have also been allegations about the use of explosives in the construction of dams and other infrastructure.
    • In 2014, an expert committee led by Dr Ravi Chopra, instituted to assess the role of dams in exacerbating floods, provided hard evidence on how haphazard construction of dams was causing irreversible damage to the region.

    7 Immediate steps

    • 1) Investing in resilience planning, especially in flood prevention and rapid response.
    • 2) Climate proofing the infrastructure such as by applying road stabilisation technologies for fragile road networks and strengthening existing structures like bridges, culverts and tunnels.
    • 3) Strengthening embankments with adequate scientific know-how
    • 4) Reassessing development of hydropower and other public infrastructure.
    • 5) Investing in robust monitoring and early warning system.
    • 6) Establishing implementable policies and regulatory guidelines to restrict detrimental human activities, including responsible eco- and religious tourism policies.
    • 7) Investing in training and capacity building to educate and empower local communities to prevent and manage risks effectively.

    Consider the question “What are the factors that make Uttarakhand vulnerable to natural disasters? Suggest the measures to prevent and deal with the disasters” 

    Conclusion

    India needs to urgently rise up to the challenge by applying innovative and inclusive solutions that support nature and marginalised communities, to restore and rebuild a resilient future for Uttarakhand.

  • Role of dams in Uttarakhand floods

    The article explains the link between the disasters in the Uttarakhand and the construction of dams.

    How dams exacerbate disasters

    • The use of explosives has repeatedly been questioned for dam construction, and the construction of other infrastructure projects, such as roads, in the fragile Himalayan State.
    • Other than this, deforestation takes place when dams are constructed.
    • The construction material that is supposed to be dumped on separate land is often dumped into the rivers.

    The Chopra Committee report after Kedarnath flood

    • The Chopra Committee report of 2014 brings more clarity on how dams exacerbate a disaster such as floods.
    • Its report mentions how dams exacerbated the 2013 deluge, mainly as riverbeds were already raised from the disposed muck at the dam construction sites.
    • The report presents evidence to prove that dams are not only damaged in floods, they also cause immense damage in downstream areas.
    • This is because as floodwaters damage a barrage, they increase the destructive capacity of the water that flows downstream of the barrage.
    • In an affidavit submitted on December 5, 2014 in the Supreme Court, the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change acknowledged the adverse impact of dams in the 2013 floods.

    Impact of climate change and threat of earthquakes

    • Himalayan glaciers are receding and disintegrating as a result of climate change, and the snow cover in the Himalayas is also thinning.
    • Research shows an increase in number and volume of glacial lakes as a result of of increased temperatures.
    • For dams, this means rapid increase or decrease in the reservoir water level.
    • It also means that the projections on the life of a dam reservoir may not stand due to erratic events, such as floods, that could rapidly fill a reservoir with muck and boulders brought along with the floods.
    • In terms of earthquake risk, Uttarakhand lies in Seismic Zone-IV (severe intensity) and Seismic Zone-V (very severe intensity).
    • Ignoring this, many dams have been constructed in zones that are under high risk of witnessing severe earthquakes.

    Consider the question “Examine the role played by the dams in exacerbating the disasters in the Himalayan states”

    Conclusion

    It is clear that dams worsen disasters, and for this to be ignored by the State authorities is unfortunate.

  • Flash floods and their mitigation

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.

    What are Flash floods?

    • A flash flood is a rapid flooding of low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and depressions.
    • It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm, or meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields.

    Take a glimpse of the series of disasters in Uttarakhand

    Chamoli example

    • Flash flood incident in Uttarakhand is another warning of the dangers that a Himalayan state like Uttarakhand faces from natural processes like landslides, snow avalanches cloudbursts or lake bursts.
    • As we saw in 2013 in the same state, such processes can trigger much bigger disasters and cause massive destruction.
    • But it is possible to work towards minimising the threat of such incidents and reduce their impact.

    Role of glacial lakes

    • There are over 1,000 glaciers in Uttarakhand. Almost all of them are receding. Most of the glaciers also have debris cover.
    • When glaciers retreat due to rising temperatures, the snow melts but the debris remains. This debris aids in the formation of lakes.

    Cause: Retreat of glaciers

    • Glaciers have reduced considerably in mass and surface area since the little ice age period.
    • This has led to the formation of a large number of glacial lakes all across the Himalayas.
    • Many of these high-altitude lakes are potentially dangerous, because of their potential to cause flash floods in the event of a breach.

    How big is the threat?

    • Over the years, the frequency of formation of these lakes has increased.
    • But despite that, there are not many GLOF (glacial lake outburst flood) events happening in Uttarakhand.
    • Not as many as in Sikkim, for example. This is because Uttarakhand has very steep slopes, and the water manages to find a way out.

    What should be done?

    (a) Coherent research

    • There are a lot more glaciologists and others who are working in the area and generating data.
    • Multiple scientific groups and institutions are involved. But there is no coherent output. Lots of data are being generated but not being put to good use.
    • There has to be one agency dedicated to the job.

    (b) Monitoring

    • The first step in tackling the threat from these glacial lakes is to start monitoring them and the glaciers more actively and regularly.
    • There is a need to monitor every glacier. Glaciers in one basin do not have remarkably different properties.
    • Relying only on satellites and remote sensing is not going to be enough.
    • What is required is a consolidated state of glaciers in India, with the ability to zoom in on any of them and track the changes happening year by year.

    (c) Planning

    • Construction-related activities in the state might not have a direct link to Chamoli incident, but these are not entirely benign.
    • The Himalayas are very young mountain systems, and extremely fragile and a minor change in orientation of the rocks can be enough to trigger landslides.
    • It is important to include glaciers in any environment impact assessment for major projects such as the construction of dams.
    • The entire catchment areas should be made part of the impact assessment.

    (d) Mitigation

    • If we monitor the glaciers regularly, it would enable us to identify the lakes that need mitigation solutions.
    • Several structural and geotechnical measures can be applied, and there are successful examples where the threat from these lakes has been reduced.
    • It is possible to construct channels for the gradual and regulated discharge of water from these lakes, which will reduce the pressure on them, and minimise the chances of a breach.
    • At the same time, it also reduces the volume of water that goes into the flash flood. Also, alarm systems can be set up at the lakes that will warn the community downstream whenever an overflow happens.

    Way forward

    • It is not possible to completely prevent these kinds of incidents. But their potential to cause destruction can certainly be minimized.
    • Scientists can find a way to let the lake waters slowly drain at the nearby river at a regulated rate so that there is no flooding, and the pressure on the lake does not become unbearable.
    • Such solutions can be applied in Uttarakhand, and some work is being done.

  • Why hydel projects in the Himalayas are worrying?

    The flash flood that claimed several lives in Chamoli has caused Uttarakhand’s hydroelectric projects (HEPs) to be scrutinized closely.

    Q.How do hydropower projects pose geological and topographical threats to the ecosystem? (150W)

    Why Hydropower in Uttarakhand?

    • Uttarakhand has a tricky relationship with electricity.
    • With a landscape that’s inhospitable to thermal power grid lines and with people too poor to pay for electricity, micro and mini hydro-electric power projects were seen as the answer.
    • Between the government’s long-standing ‘power for all’ objective, and environmentalists pushing for a cleaner, renewable energy, setting up dozens of hydel power plants seemed ideal.

    Impacts of HEPs

    Limitless quarrying, deforestation, stopping the flow of rivers, and mushrooming of hydropower projects have made the Himalayas unstable.

    • Existing and under-construction hydro-power projects in Uttarakhand have led to several deleterious environmental impacts (Char Dham Committee).
    • Among the significant impacts are on the river ecosystem, forest and terrestrial biodiversity, geological environment and social infrastructure.
    • More than seven years later, some experts believe that over-exploitation of rivers and rampant damming for hydroelectric projects (HEPs) could be one of the big factors responsible for the Chamoli disaster.
    • The ‘river-bed profile’ across the major HEPs of Uttarakhand has changed significantly, suggesting the possibility of disasters in future.

    The Kedarnath floods

    • Between June 13 and 17, 2013, Uttarakhand had received an unusual amount of rainfall.
    • This led to the melting of the Chorabari glacier and the eruption of the Mandakini river.
    • The floods affected large parts of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Western Nepal.
    • The heavy rainfall caused massive flash floods and landslides resulting in the death of residents and tourists as well as extensive damage to property.
    • Over 5,000 people were killed in the floods

    Construction still persists

    • Neglecting all warnings of the experts, rampant construction was carried out in the sensitive zones even after the 2013 Kedarnath deluge.
    • Notably, two dozen hydropower plants of Uttarakhand were rejected by the Supreme Court after the expert panel report.

    HEPs in Uttarakhand

    The rivers and basins in the state are dotted with 43 micro hydel projects. Some of them are:

    Alarms have been raised earlier

    • The Kedarnath expert committee had warned about the excessive exploitation of vulnerable regions and the need to re-study and re-evaluate the HEPs of Uttarakhand.
    • The report also objected to HEPs at an altitude of over 2000 metres.
    • The report pointed out that the potential threat of landslide, cloudburst, subsidence, flash floods has increased tremendously in the past few years and many critical zones need immediate attention.
    • The study also mentioned that a lot of anthropogenic pressure due to different activities related to HEPs was alarming and needed checks.

  • The problem of ageing dams in India

    Ageing dams threaten India’s water security, affect farmers’ income and increases the frequency of flooding. 

    What is a dam?

    • A dam is a barrier that stops the flow of water and results in the creation of a reservoir. Dams are mainly built in order to produce electricity by using water. This form of electricity is known as hydroelectricity.
    • Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability.

    Types of Dams

    There are many dams in India, and hence there is a need to know about them as there are questions based on the dams of India. The Bank Exams like IBPS or SBI contains questions from this section.

    Based on the structure the types of dams are as mentioned below:

    1. Arch Dam: An arch dam is a concrete dam that is curved upstream in the plan. It is designed so that the hydrostatic pressure (force of the water against it) presses against the arch, causing the arch to straighten slightly and strengthening the structure as it pushes into its foundation or abutments. An arch dam is most suitable for narrow canyons or gorges with steep walls of stable rock to support the structure and stresses.
    2. Gravity Dam: Dams constructed from concrete or stone masonry are Gravity dams. They are designed to hold back water by using only the weight of the material and its resistance against the foundation to oppose the horizontal pressure of water pushing against it. These are designed in such a way that each section of the dam is stable and independent of other section.
    3. Arch-Gravity Dam: This dam has the characteristics of both an arch dam and a gravity dam. It is a dam that curves upstream in a narrowing curve that directs most of the water pressure against the canyon rock walls. The inward compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam.
    4. Barrages: A barrage is a type of low-head, diversion dam which consists of a number of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing through. This allows the structure to regulate and stabilize river water elevation upstream for use in irrigation and other systems.
    5. Embankment Dams: An embankment dam is a large artificial dam. It is typically created by the placement and compaction of a complex semi-plastic mound of various compositions of soil, sand, clay, or rock. It has a semi-pervious waterproof natural covering for its surface and a dense, impervious core.
    6. Rock-Fills Dams: Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high percentage of large particles, hence the term “rock-fill”.
    7. Concrete-face rock-fill dams: A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design provides the concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure.
    8. Earth-fill dams: Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well-compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water.

    Major Dams in India

    The major dams in India have helped the inhabitants in a number of ways like:

    1. Providing adequate water for domestic, industry and irrigation purposes.
    2. Hydroelectric power production and river navigation.
    3. These major dams in India and their reservoirs provide recreation areas for fishing and boating.
    4. They have helped in the reduction of floods.

    Some facts about the issue of ageing dams

    • India is ranked third in the world in terms of building large dams.
    • Of the over 5,200 large dams built so far, about 1,100 large dams have already reached 50 years of age and some are older than 120 years.
    • The number of such dams will increase to 4,400 by 2050.
    • This means that 80% of the nation’s large dams face the prospect of becoming obsolete as they will be 50 years to over 150 years old.
    • The situation with hundreds of thousands of medium and minor dams is even more precarious as their shelf life is even lower than that of large dams.

    Impact on the storage capacity

    • As dams age, soil replaces the water in the reservoirs technically known as silt or sediment.
    • Therefore, the storage capacity cannot be claimed to be the same as it was in the 1900s and 1950s.
    • To make matters worse, studies show that the design of many of our reservoirs is flawed.
    • Almost every scholarly study on reservoir sedimentation shows that Indian reservoirs are designed with a poor understanding of sedimentation science.
    • The designs underestimate the rate of siltation and overestimate live storage capacity created.
    • Therefore, the storage space in Indian reservoirs is receding at a rate faster than anticipated.

    Consequences

    • When soil replaces the water in reservoirs, supply gets choked.
    • The net sown water area either shrinks in size or depends on rains or groundwater, which is over-exploited.
    • Crop yield gets affected severely and disrupts the farmer’s income.
    • The farmer’s income may get reduced as water is one of the crucial factors for crop yield along with credit, crop insurance and investment.
    • It is important to note that no plan on climate change adaptation will succeed with sediment-packed dams.
    • The flawed siltation rates demonstrated by a number of scholarly studies reinforce the argument that the designed flood cushion within several reservoirs across many river basins may have already depleted substantially due to which floods have become more frequent downstream of dams. 

    Consider the question “Ageing dams poses several challenges for India. Identify these challenges and suggest the measures to deal with these challenges.” 

    Conclusion

    The nation will eventually be unable to find sufficient water in the 21st century to feed the rising population by 2050, grow abundant crops, create sustainable cities, or ensure growth. Therefore, it is imperative for all stakeholders to come together to address this situation urgently.

  • What is the ‘Doomsday Clock’?

    The hands of the ‘Doomsday Clock’, a visual depiction of how vulnerable the world is to a climate or nuclear catastrophe, remained at ‘100 seconds to midnight’ for the second consecutive year — the closest it has been to the symbolic annihilation of humanity.

    Q.The ‘Doomsday Clock’ represents the hypothetical countdown to raise human consciousness against mutually assured destruction. In this light, discuss various existential threats to humanity and action taken so far.

    What is the ‘Doomsday Clock’?

    • The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, founded by Albert Einstein and students from the University of Chicago in 1945, created the ‘Doomsday Clock’.
    • It is held as a symbol to represent how close the world is to a possible apocalypse.
    • It is set annually by a panel of scientists, including 13 Nobel laureates, based on the threats — old and new — that the world faced in that year.
    • When it was first created in 1947, the hands of the clock were placed based on the threat posed by nuclear weapons, which the scientists then perceived to be the greatest threat to humanity.
    • Over the years, they have included other existential threats, such as climate change and disruptive technologies like artificial intelligence.

    Significance of such clock

    • The reason the scientists selected a clock is twofold — they wanted to use the imagery of an apocalypse (midnight) as well as the “contemporary idiom of a nuclear explosion” (zero countdowns) to illustrate the threats to humanity.
    • The clock was originally set to seven minutes to midnight and has since moved closer or further away from the dreaded 12 o’clock position.
    • The furthest it has been being 17 minutes after the end of the Cold War in 1991.

    Why was the clock set at ‘100 seconds from midnight’?

    • It was set at the ‘100 seconds from midnight’ position due to the prevailing climate conditions, “cyber-based disinformation”, nuclear risk and the pandemic.
    • It is the closest to Doomsday we have ever been in the history of the Clock.
    • We now face a true emergency – an absolutely unacceptable state of world affairs that has eliminated any margin for error or further delay.