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Subject: History

  • Scripting a new tribal identity

    Why in the news? 

    President of India Droupadi Murmu was being presented a book, Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle, at a National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) event.

    Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle

    • Santhal Revolution: Led by Buddhu Bhagat, Joa Bhagat, and Madara Mahato, the Santhal Revolution was a significant tribal uprising against British colonial rule in 1855. The Kols were joined by other tribes like the Hos, Mundas, and Oraons in this struggle
    • Paika Rebellion: The Paika Rebellion in 1817 was a tribal uprising against the British in Odisha. The Paikas were a warrior class who were fighting for their rights and against the exploitation by the British
    • Kol Revolt: The Kol Revolt of 1831-32 was a tribal uprising against the British in Chhattisgarh. The Kols were fighting for their rights over the land and against the exploitation by the British
    • Birsa Munda: Birsa Munda was a tribal leader from Jharkhand who led the Millenarian Movement against the British in the late 19th century. He mobilized the tribal community against the British and forced them to introduce laws protecting the land rights of tribals
    • Rani Gaidinliu: Rani Gaidinliu was a tribal leader from Nagaland who led a revolt against the British in the early 20th century. She was a spiritual leader who fought for the rights of the Nagas and against the exploitation by the British
    • Laxman Naik: Laxman Naik was a tribal leader from Odisha who led a revolt against the British in the early 20th century. He was a farmer who fought for the rights of the farmers and against the exploitation by the British

    Impact of Tribal Revolts during Freedom Struggle: 

    • The tribal revolts during the freedom struggle contributed to the very beginning of the aggression for British Raj. They revolted not against the British but their policy for Indians which were imposed on them without even knowing their culture and its significance. Later this led to the revolt of 1857, which took attention of all over the country

    Conclusion: President Droupadi Murmu received the book “Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle” at an NCST event, highlighting significant uprisings like the Santhal, Paika, and Kol revolts, emphasizing tribal resistance against British exploitation, influencing broader Indian agitation.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their role in the Indian struggle for freedom.(UPSC IAS/2013)

  • Srinagar vies for World Craft City Tag 

    Why in the news?

    • The World Crafts Council International (WCCI) has identified Srinagar as a potential candidate for the prestigious World Craft City (WCC) designation from India.
    • Artisans in Srinagar have uniquely preserved their traditional crafts such as Pashmina shawls, carpets, and papier mâché.

    Craft Sector Statistics in Kashmir

    • The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage-Kashmir (INTACH-K) is working with the J&K Handicrafts department to map Srinagar’s craft sector in preparation for the final nomination.
    • Srinagar boasts a rich artisanal heritage, with over 20,000 registered craftsmen engaged in various disciplines such as papier mâché, walnut wood carving, hand-knotted carpets, and more.
    • Handicrafts contribute significantly to the local economy, with approximately 2.64% of J&K’s overall economic output attributed to the sector by 2016-17.

     

    About World Craft Council (WCC International)

    Details
    What is it? Non-profit, Non-governmental organization
    Working
    • Establishment in 1964;
    • Registered in Belgium as an international association without lucrative purpose (AISBL).
    • Affiliated to the UNESCO
    Founders Kamaladevi Chattopadhay and Aileen Osborn Webb
    Purpose To promote fellowship among craftspersons worldwide, foster economic development through craft-related activities, organize exchange programs, workshops, conferences, seminars, and exhibitions, and offer encouragement and advice to artisans.
    Legal Status
    • Registered in Belgium as an international association without lucrative purpose (AISBL)
    • WCC is organized into five regions: Africa, Asia Pacific, Europe, Latin America, and North America.
    Meetings
    • European branch meets annually;
    • General Assembly occurs every four years (took place in Chennai in 2012).

    What is World Craft City (WCC) Designation?

    • The WCC initiative was launched in 2014 by the World Crafts Council AISBL (WCC-International).
    • It recognizes the pivotal role local authorities, craftspeople, and communities play in cultural, economic, and social development worldwide.
    • India has only 3 cities designated as World Craft City:
    1. Jaipur (Kundan Jadai (Gem setting), Meenakari Jewellery, Lac based craft, Gotta Patti Work etc. )
    2. Mysuru (Kinnal paintings, Sandalwood carvings, Rosewood Inlay etc. )
    3. Mamallapuram (Stone Carving continuing since Pallava dynasty (275 CE to 897 CE))

    With inputs from: https://www.wccinternational.org/craft-cities/craft-cities-asia-pacific

    PYQ:

    Consider the following pairs:

    1. Puthukkuli Shawls — Tamil Nadu
    2. Sujni Embroidery — Maharashtra
    3. Uppada Jamdani Saris — Karnataka

    Craft Heritage of which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 1 and 2

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 2 and 3

  • Iron Age Megalithic Sites discovered in Telangana

    Why in the news?

    • Archaeologists in Telangana have found Iron Age megalithic sites, including various structures such as large stone monuments and places with rock paintings.
    • These discoveries provide important information about the ancient civilizations that once lived in the area.

    Iron Age in India

    • India’s Iron Age ranged from approximately 1200 BCE to 200 BCE.
    • It was marked by the emergence of new archaeological cultures, including the megalithic cultures, Painted Grey Ware culture (1300–300 BCE), and the Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BCE).
    • This period corresponds to the transition from the Janapadas (principalities) of the Vedic period to the 16 Mahajanapadas (region-states) of the early historic period.
    • This transition culminated in the emergence of the Maurya Empire toward the end of the Iron Age.
    • Ironworking was prevalent in the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas from the early second millennium BCE.
    • Sites:
    1. North India: Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa, Kosambi and Jhusi, Allahabad in present-day Uttar Pradesh.
    2. South India: Earliest Iron Age sites include Hallur in Karnataka and Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu, dating to around 1000 BCE. Mahurjhari near Nagpur was a significant site for bead manufacturing.
    • The Indian Iron Age ended coinciding with other significant events such as the decline of the Mauryan Empire and the spread of Buddhism.

     

    About the Ooragutta Megalithic Site

    • The site boasts over 200 megalithic monuments, although the exact count remains uncertain due to the dense forest and hilly terrain.
    • They are characterized by squarish or rectangular shapes, the structures at Ooragutta exhibit unique features.

    Dolmenoid Cists

    • The newly discovered monuments, termed “Dolmenoid Cists,” feature side slabs arranged to mirror the shape of the cap-stone, resulting in each cist having a distinct shape dictated by the cap-stone.
    • These monuments are estimated to date back to around 1,000 BCE.

    Rock Art Sites at Damaratogu

    • Two new rock art sites have been discovered at Damaratogu in Gundala mandal of Bhadradri Kothagudem district.
    • One of these sites, known as ‘Devarlabanda Mula‘, exclusively depicts animals and NO humans, in a rock painting.
    • It suggests a cultural significance possibly related to hunting or animal worship.
    • The absence of weapons or domestic animals in the paintings indicates that these artworks may belong to the Mesolithic age, dating anywhere between 8000 – 3000 BCE.

    Significance of Discoveries

    • These monuments resemble to “Passage Chambers” found in Europe.
    • This discovery sheds light on previously unknown architectural styles in the region and offers insights into the evolution of megalithic practices.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Consider the following pairs: ​

    (Historical place) (Well-known for)​

    1. Burzahom : Rock-cut shrines​
    2. Chandraketugarh : Terracotta art​
    3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts​

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?​

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 1 and 2 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 2 and 3 only

  • Bhojshala-Kamal Maula Complex Dispute

    Why in the news?

    The Supreme Court has issued a cautionary note to Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) barring any physical excavation that could alter the character of the Bhojshala-Kamal Maula Complex.

    About Bhojshala Complex

    Details
    Location Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh.
    Historical Background Established by Raja Bhoj, the greatest ruler of the Parmar dynasty, as an educational institute.
    Date of Establishment 11th century.
    Transformation Originally a Goddess Wagdevi (Saraswati temple), later converted into Kamal Maulana Mosque by Muslim rulers.
    Architectural Features
    • Large open courtyard (Mahaāyata);
    • Verandah with decorated pillars (Sthāpanā);
    • Prayer hall with intricately carved ceilings (Shikharākāra).
    Inscriptions
    • Two hymns depicting the Karmavatar of Vishnu (Avatār);
    • Sarpabandha pillar inscriptions with Sanskrit alphabet and grammatical rules (Vyākaraṇa).
    Archaeological Significance Protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) as an 11th-century monument under Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958

    Controversy over Bhojshala Complex

    • Religious Claims: Hindus regard the site as the temple of Goddess Wagdevi (Saraswati), while Muslims believe it to be the Kamal Maula mosque.
    • Usage Agreement: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) allows Hindus to pray on Tuesdays and Vasant Panchami, and Muslims to offer namaz on Fridays,

    Recent Developments

    • Vasant Panchami Dispute: A recent order allowing Hindus to worship during Basant Panchami hours led to discontent among some Right-wing activists.
    • Demand for Extended Access: Hindu groups demand all-day access to the shrine on such occasions, leading to protests and petitions filed in the High Court.

     

    Who was Raja Bhoj?

    Details
    Original name Raja Bhoja (Mihir Bhoja)
    Dynasty Gurjara-Pratihara
    Reign 836 – 885 AD
    Rise to Prominence Emerged as the paramount power in northern India, defeating rivals like the Palas and Rashtrakutas
    Capital Kannauj (Mahodaya)
    Military Strength Possessed India’s strongest cavalry, as noted by Arab traveller Sulaiman
    Title Assumed the title of “Adivaraha”; referred to as “King Baura” by Arab travellers
    Religious Affiliation Great follower of Vaishnavism
    Acknowledgment of Supremacy Acknowledged as supreme by various factions, including Arabs of Sindh, Chandalas, and Kalachuris
    Notable Feats Triumph over Pala king Devapala and Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha
    Legacy Renowned for his wisdom, military prowess, and patronage of Vaishnavism
    Historical Significance Marked the zenith of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, leaving a lasting impact on Indian history

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] With reference to Chausath Yogini Temple situated near Morena, consider the following statements:​

    1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.​
    2. It is the only circular temple built in India.​
    3. I was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the region.​
    4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament building. ​

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 4 only

    (d) 2, 3 and 4 only

  • Lachit Borphukan and his Legend

    Why in the news?

    • The Statue of Valour, depicting Ahom general Lachit Borphukan, has become a significant landmark in Meleng-Hollongapar, Jorhat in Assam.
    • The 125-foot statue commemorates Lachit Borphukan’s leadership in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.

    Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)

    • Establishment: Founded in 1228 in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam by Chaolung Sukapha.
    • Duration: Retained sovereignty for 600 years until annexed by British India in 1826 (Treaty of Yandaboo).
    • Resistance: Despite facing the Mughal Empire’s power, the Ahom Kingdom remained unconquered.
    • Political Structure: Established a new state by supressing the older system of bhuiyans (landlords).
    • Labor System: Relied on forced labor known as paiks for state functions.
    • Social Organization: Society divided into clans or khels, embracing Hinduism and Assamese language alongside tribal beliefs.
    • Cultural Patronage: Supported poets, scholars, and theater; translated Sanskrit texts into local language; composed historical chronicles called buranjis.
    • Military Strategy: King served as supreme commander; core army comprised of paiks; mastered guerrilla warfare and surprise attacks.
    • Key Forts: Included Chamdhara, Saraighat, and Simlagarh, strategically crucial for defense.
    • River Expertise: Mastered construction of boat bridges on the Brahmaputra River.
    • Legacy: Ahom Kingdom’s military prowess, cultural patronage, and political organization left a lasting impact on Assam’s history.

    Who was Lachit Borphukan?

    • Lachit Borphukan was a legendary military commander from the northeastern region of India, specifically from the state of Assam. Here are some facts related to him:
    Description
    Timeline 1622-1672
    Dynasty Ahom Dynasty
    Mughal Threat Faced the Mughal Empire’s expansion into Assam
    Battle of Saraighat
    • Led Ahom forces to victory against the Mughals in 1671;
    • Defended Assam against the Aurangzeb’s forces led by Ram Singh.
    Leadership Known for strategic brilliance and guerrilla tactics
    Legacy Revered as a symbol of Assamese pride and resistance
    Recognition
    • INS Lachit:  Indian Navy’s guided-missile destroyer named in honor;
    • Lachit Divas:  Celebrated annually on November 24th in Assam;
    • Lachit Borphukan Medal: Awarded to the best cadet from the National Defence. Academy (NDA, Pune).

     

    PYQ:

    [2015]  Who among the following founded a new city on the south bank of a tributary to river Krishna and undertook to rule his new kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all the land south of the river Krishna was supposed to belong?

    (a) Amoghavarsha I

    (b) Ballala II

    (c) Harihara I

    (d) Prataparudra II

  • Mahad Satyagraha: A Landmark Event in the Dalit Movement

    Why in the news?

    The Mahad Satyagraha is hailed as the foundational event of the Dalit movement, marking the community’s collective rejection of the caste system and assertion of human rights.

    About Mahad Satyagraha

    • The Mahad Satyagraha, also known as Chavdar Tale (Lake) Satyagraha, was led by B. R. Ambedkar on 20 March 1927 in Mahad, Raigad District of Maharashtra.
    • Its aim was to assert the right of untouchables to use water from a public tank.
    1. Background:
    • Untouchables (Dalits) were segregated in Indian society and banned from using public water bodies and roads used by other Hindu castes.
    • In August 1923, the Bombay Legislative Council passed a resolution allowing depressed classes to use government-maintained places, but it faced opposition from savarna Hindus.
    • In January 1924, Mahad passed a resolution in its municipal council to enforce the act but failed to implement it due to protests.
    1. Satyagraha:
    • In 1927, Ambedkar launched a satyagraha to assert untouchables’ rights to use water in public places.
    • Mahad was chosen for the event due to its support from ‘caste Hindus’.
    • Surendranath Tipnis, president of the Mahad municipality, invited Ambedkar to hold a meeting there.
    • Ambedkar drank water from the tank, followed by thousands of untouchables.
    • He encouraged Dalit women to abandon customs of untouchability and wear saris like high-caste women, which they embraced.
    • A riot erupted over rumors of Ambedkar planning to enter a Hindu temple, and the tank was purified with cow-urine and cow-dung.
    • Ambedkar planned a second conference in Mahad in December 1927 but faced legal obstacles due to a case filed by caste Hindus.
    • On 25 December 1937, the Bombay High Court ruled that untouchables have the right to use water from the tank.
    1. Legacy:
    • On 19 March 1940, Ambedkar arranged a rally in Mahad to commemorate the Satyagraha as “Empowerment Day.”

    Back2Basics: Key Initiatives and Movements Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

    Initiative Location Objective
    Temple Entry Movement (1920s-1930s) Various Locations Advocating for the right of Dalits to enter Hindu temples.
    Mahad Satyagraha (Chavdar Tale Satyagraha) Mahad, Maharashtra Asserting the rights of untouchables to use water from a public tank.
    Kalaram Mandir Movement (1930) Nashik, Maharashtra Demanding temple entry rights for Dalits at the Kalaram Mandir.
    Annihilation of Caste (1936) – Publication of “Annihilation of Caste,” advocating for the abolition of the caste system.
    Formation of Independent Dalit Political Party (Independent Labour Party) (1936) – Addressing the political concerns and aspirations of Dalits.
    Push for Separate Electorate by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1932) India Advocating for separate electorates for Dalits to ensure their political representation and empowerment.
    Legal Advocacy (1940s-1950s) – Drafting of the Hindu Code Bills, contribution to the framing of the Indian Constitution.
    Conversion to Buddhism (1956) Nagpur, Maharashtra Symbolizing a rejection of the caste system through mass conversion ceremony to Buddhism.

     

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which one of the following is a very significant aspect of the Champaran Satyagraha?

    (a) Active all-India participation of lawyers, students and women in the National Movement

    (b) Active involvement of Dalit and Tribal communities of India in the National Movement

    (c) Joining of peasant unrest to India’s National Movement

    (d) Drastic decrease in the cultivation of plantation crops and commercial crops

  • Anniversary of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

    Why in the news?

    On April 13, 1919, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered British troops to open fire on a peaceful gathering in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, leaving a deep scar on India’s collective memory.

    Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

    1. Background: Protesting the contentious Rowlatt Act
    • The act officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919 was passed in 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council.
    • It had authorized the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities.
    • It also authorized the government to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial.
    • It empowered the police to search a place without a warrant. It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press.
    • The primary intention of colonial govt. was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country.
    • The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite Revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country.
    1. The day
    • The massacre took place on 13 April 1919 when troops of the British Indian Army (Gurkha and Sikh infantry regiments) under the command of Col. Reginald Dyer fired rifles into a crowd of Indians.
    • The civilians had assembled for a peaceful protest to condemn the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
    • Dyer without warning ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well.
    • The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes which resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people.
    1. Aftermath
    • In protest against the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood.
    • Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa.
    • Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre.
    • The heroic treatment of Dyer’s heinous act again set a benchmark of colonial arrogance.

    Hunter Commission for Inquiry

    • In October 1919 the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, ordered the formation of a committee of inquiry into the events in Punjab.
    • Referred to as the Disorders Inquiry Committee, it was later more widely known as the Hunter Commission (Not to be confused with Hunter Education Commission).
    • The commission inquiry was concluded without any significant conclusion.
    • Still, there are long-standing demands in India that Britain should apologize for the massacre.

    PYQ:

    [2012] The Rowlatt Act aimed at:

    (a) Compulsory economic support to war efforts

    (b) Imprisonment without trial and summary procedures for trial

    (c) Suppression of the Khilafat Movement

    (d) Imposition of restrictions on freedom of the press

  • Sangeet Natak Akademi organizes ‘Shakti – Festival of Music and Dance’

    Why in the news?

    Sangeet Natak Akademi is set to host ‘Shakti, a festival of music and dance’ as part of its Kala Pravah series at 7 Shaktipeeths.

    Shakti – Festival of Music and Dance

    Events will be held at:

    1. Kamakhya Temple, Guwahati
    2. Mahalakshmi Temple, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
    3. Jwalamukhi Temple, Kangada, Himachal Pradesh
    4. Tripura Sundari Temple, Udaipur, Tripura
    5. Ambaji Temple, Banaskantha, Gujarat
    6. Jai Durga Shaktipeeth, Deoghar, Jharkhand
    7. Shaktipeeth Maa Harsidhi Temple, Jaisinghpur, Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh

    What are Shaktipeeths?

    • Shaktipeeths are sacred sites in Hinduism associated with the Goddess Shakti or Devi, the divine feminine energy.
    • According to Hindu mythology, these sites are believed to be where various body parts of the goddess Sati/ Shakti fell to the earth when her body was dismembered by Lord Vishnu’s.
    • There are numerous Shaktipeeths spread across the Indian subcontinent and beyond, each considered highly sacred by devotees of the Goddess.

    Here are some major Shaktipeeths often seen in news:

     

    Temple Place (State/Country)
    Shankari Devi Temple Trincomalee (Sri Lanka)
    Kamakshi Amman Temple Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu)
    Shrinkala Temple Pradmunyee (Pandua, West Bengal)
    Chamundeshwari Temple Mysuru (Karnataka)
    Jogulamba Devi Alampuram (Telangana)
    Bhramaramba Mallikarjuna Temple Srisailam (Andhra Pradesh)
    Mahalakshmi Temple Kolhapur (Maharashtra)
    Ekveera Temple Mahur (Maharashtra)
    Mahakaleswar Temple Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh)
    Kukkuteswara Swamy Temple Pithapuram (Andhra Pradesh)
    Biraja Temple Jajpur (Odisha)
    Bhimeswara Temple Draksharamam (Andhra Pradesh)
    Kamakhya Temple Guwahati (Assam)
    Alopi Devi Mandir Prayagraj (Uttar Pradesh)
    Jwalamukhi Temple Jwalamukhi (Himachal Pradesh)
    Mangla Gauri Temple Gaya (Bihar)
    Vishalakshi Temple Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
    Sharada Peeth Sharda, Kashmir (Pakistan Occupied Kashmir)

    About Sangeet Natak Akademi

    • It is the national level academy for performing arts set up by the Government of India.
    • It was set up by the Indian education ministry on 31 May 1952 and became functional the following year, with the appointment of its first chairman, Dr. P. V. Rajamannar.
    • Dr Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, inaugurated it on 28 January 1953 in a special function held in the Parliament House.

    Functions:

    • The academy functions as the apex body of the performing arts in the country to preserve and promote the vast cultural heritage of India expressed in music, dance and drama.
    • It also works with governments and art academies in states and union territories of the country. 

    Awards and fellowships:

    1. Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
    2. Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowships (Ratna Sadsya)
    3. Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva Puraskar
    4. Tagore Ratna and Tagore Puraskar

  • Insights from History: Coalition Governments in Colonial India

    Why in the news?

    • Prime Minister recently suggested a link between the Congress manifesto and the Muslim League (which is responsible for the Partition of India), prompting a political debate.
    • In rebuttal, critics reminded of a coalition governments formed by Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal, Sindh, and North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) in the 1940s with the Muslim League.

    Provincial Elections of 1937:

    [A] Indian National Congress

    • Congress performed admirably in the 1937 provincial elections, held under the mandate of the Government of India Act of 1935.
    • It won 711 of a total 1,585 provincial assembly seats, with absolute majorities in 5 of the 11 provinces (Madras, Bihar, Orissa, Central Provinces, and United Provinces) and a near-majority in Bombay (86 out of 175).
    • Congress ministries were formed in all of these provinces.
    • Sometime later, the Congress also formed governments in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Assam.

    [B] Non-Congress Parties

    • Non-Congress governments were formed in the remaining 3 provinces — Sindh, Punjab, and Bengal.
    • In Sindh, a coalition led by the Sind United Party formed the government; in Punjab, Sikandar Hayat Khan’s Unionist Party won a majority.
    • And in Bengal, Fazlul Huq’s Krishak Praja Party (KPP) formed a coalition government with the Muslim League— even though the Congress was the single largest party with 54 seats.

    [C] Religion based Parties

    • Notably, the Muslim League, which claimed to be the sole representative of Indian Muslims, performed abysmally in the elections.
    • The League won just 106 out of the 482 seats allotted to Muslims under separate electorates, and it failed to win even a single seat in the NWFP.
    • The Hindu Mahasabha, which had entered electoral politics in the 1930s under V D Savarkar’s leadership, too fared miserable.

    Ideological Alignment and Political Alliances

    • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar noted ideological similarities between the Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim League, both advocating for the two-nation theory.
    • This ideological convergence paved the way for short-lived political alliances, particularly during the turmoil following Congress’s resignation from provincial ministries in 1939.

    Reasons for such Alliance

    • Opposition to Quit India Movement:  When Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in 1942, the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha refrained from participating, opting to support the British war effort.
    • Support for British War Efforts: Savarkar, in a letter, instructed Mahasabha members to remain loyal to their positions and not join the movement, while Syama Prasad Mookerjee pledged support to suppress any internal disturbances.
    • Increased Push for Partition: Jinnah, meanwhile, intensified his campaign for Pakistan, capitalizing on the absence of Congress leaders and positioning himself as the sole spokesman for Muslims.

    Muslim League: 

    • The All India Muslim League was formed in 1906 in Dhaka, Bengal Presidency, British India.
    • It was established in response to the perceived marginalization and political underrepresentation of Muslims in the Indian National Congress.
    • The founding members of the Muslim League included prominent Muslim leaders such as Nawab Salimullah Khan of Dhaka, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, Aga Khan III, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who later emerged as its most influential leader.
    • The primary objective of the Muslim League was to safeguard the political rights and interests of Muslims in India.
    • It advocated for separate electorates for Muslims, reservations in government jobs and legislative bodies, and other measures to protect Muslim identity and interests.

    Hindu Mahasabha:

    •  The Hindu Mahasabha was founded in 1915 in Amritsar, Punjab, by Madan Mohan Malaviya and others.
    • It aimed to unite Hindus under one political umbrella and promote Hindu nationalism.
    • Besides Madan Mohan Malaviya, prominent leaders included Lala Lajpat Rai, B. S. Moonje, and Vinayak Damodar Savarkar.
    • It promoted the idea of Akhand Bharat (Undivided India) and opposed the partition of India on religious lines.

     Implications of this Coalition

    • The period following Congress’s participation in the Quit India Movement saw the rise of the Muslim League’s influence, with League ministries established in several provinces by 1943.
    • Jinnah’s strategy to capitalize on Congress’s absence contributed to his claim as the sole representative of Indian Muslims, furthering the demand for Pakistan.

    PYQ:

    [2018] In the Federation established by The Government of India Act of 1935, Residuary Power were given to the:

    (a) Federal Legislature

    (b) Governor General

    (c) Provincial Legislature

    (d) Provincial Governors

  • Ikshvaku Period Lead Coins unearthed in Phanigiri

    Why in the news?

    • Telangana’s Department of Heritage has recently unearthed a lead coin hoard belonging to Ikshvaku Period at Phanigiri, a renowned Buddhist heritage site.
    • The coins numbering 3,730 bore an elephant symbol on the obverse and a Ujjain symbol on the reverse.

    Who were the Ikshvaku (225-340 A.D)?

    1. Origin and Rule
    • The Ikshvaku dynasty was a feudatory under the patronage of the Satavahanas.
    • Their capital was located at Vijayapuri, modern-day Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh.
    • They ruled over the delta of the Krishna and Godavari rivers on the east coast of the Andhra region.
    • They claimed to be descendants of the legendary king Ikshvaku, mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Rigveda and Ramayana.
    • The dynasty’s founder was Vasishthiputra Chamtamula, who rose to power after the decline of the Satavahana dynasty.
    1. Cultural Affiliations
    • The Ikshvakus were Shaivites and performed Vedic rites, but they also patronized Buddhism, which flourished during their reign.
    • Under the reign of Vasishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, the Ikshvaku kingdom reached its zenith, marked by the construction of numerous Hindu and Buddhist shrines.
    • Their inscriptions and coins have been discovered at various archaeological sites, including Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Kottampalugu, Gurazala, Rentala, and Uppugunduru.
    1. Decline:
    • Successive rulers, such as Mathari-putra Vira-purusha-datta, Vasishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, and Vasishthi-putra Rudra-purusha-datta, contributed to the expansion and governance of the kingdom.
    • By the mid-4th century, the Pallavas had gained control of the former Ikshvaku territory, marking the decline of the dynasty.

    About Phanigiri

    • Phanigiri village derived its name from the shape of the hillock, which appears to be like a snake hood.
    • The word Phani in Sanskrit means snake and Giri means hillock.
    • Studies suggest that the village had a vibrant life from 1000 BC to 18th century AD.
    • Phanigiri is believed to be one of the important Buddhist monasteries strategically located on the hilltop, on the ancient trade route (Dakshinapatha) connecting the west and the east coast of the Deccan.
    • Various stages of earlier excavations here discovered Mahastupa, apsidal Chaityagrihas, Votive stupas, pillared congregation halls, Viharas, platforms with staircases at various levels, octagonal stupa chaitya, 24-pillared mandapam, circular Chaitya.
    • Cultural materials included terracotta beads, semi-precious beads, iron objects, Brahmi label inscriptions and holy relic casket.

     

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of Gupta Numismatic Art is not at all noticeable in later times?