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Subject: Science and Technology

  • UK sees success in Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy

    mitochondria

    Central Idea

    • The birth of a baby using three persons’ DNA using Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy (MRT) in the UK has generated significant attention and discussion.
    • The baby has three parents, with the mitochondria coming from a donor in addition to the genetic material from the biological parents.
    • This pioneering technology was employed to prevent the baby from inheriting the mother’s mitochondrial disease.

    What is Mitochondria?

    Description
    Structure Membrane-bound organelles with outer and inner membranes
    Energy Production Generate ATP through cellular respiration and oxidative phosphorylation
    ATP Production Breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the inner membrane
    DNA and Replication Possess their own circular DNA (mtDNA) and can replicate independently
    Other Functions Involved in calcium signalling, apoptosis, and synthesis of molecules
    Inheritance Maternally inherited during fertilization
    Evolutionary Origin Arise from a symbiotic relationship with bacteria-like organisms
    Disorders Mutations or dysfunction can cause mitochondrial diseases

     

    • Certain defects in mitochondria can lead to mitochondrial diseases, impacting the function of energy-hungry tissues in various organs.
    • Mitochondrial diseases have no cure but can be treated, and their incidence is estimated to be one in 5,000 people.
    • In this case, the mother had a mitochondrial disease that she wanted to avoid passing on to her baby, but she did not want to use a donor egg.

    What is Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy (MRT)?

    • MRT is a medical technique used to prevent the transmission of certain mitochondrial diseases from a mother to her child.
    • It involves replacing faulty mitochondria in an egg or embryo with healthy mitochondria from a donor.
    • The procedure is typically performed using in vitro fertilization (IVF) techniques.
    • The nucleus, containing the majority of the genetic material, is transferred from the intended parents’ egg or embryo to a donor egg or embryo with healthy mitochondria.
    • The resulting embryo, with nuclear DNA from the intended parents and healthy mitochondria from the donor, is then implanted into the mother’s uterus for gestation.

    How does it work?

    • The father’s sperm fertilizes the eggs from the biological mother and a female donor with healthy mitochondria.
    • The genetic material from the donor’s egg is replaced with that of the biological parents, resulting in an egg with the parents’ DNA and the donor’s mitochondria.
    • This modified egg is then implanted into the mother’s uterus and carried to full term, resulting in a baby free from the mother’s mitochondrial disease.

    Uses of MRT

    • Prevention of Mitochondrial Diseases: MRT helps prevent the transmission of certain mitochondrial diseases from mothers to their children.
    • Family Planning: It enables individuals or couples with mitochondrial DNA mutations to have genetically related children without the risk of disease inheritance.
    • Improved Health: MRT can significantly improve the overall health and well-being of individuals by avoiding debilitating mitochondrial diseases.
    • Ethical Considerations: It provides an alternative to traditional donor egg options, allowing intended parents to have a child with their own genetic material while avoiding disease transmission.
    • Scientific Advancements: MRT contributes to scientific research and advancements in assisted reproductive technologies, expanding our understanding of mitochondrial biology and potential treatment options for mitochondrial disorders.

    Recent advancements in UK

    • The baby primarily carries DNA from its biological parents and a small percentage from the donor whose mitochondria was used during fertilization.

    Scientific process

    • Mitochondrial diseases are inherited from the mother, prompting research to find ways to protect infants from inheriting these diseases.
    • The Newcastle Fertility Clinic developed an advanced in vitro fertilization technique known as Mitochondrial Donation Treatment (MDT).

    Legal Facilitation of MDT

    • The UK government amended the law in 2015 to allow for mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) or MDT.
    • The Newcastle Fertility Centre became the first center to obtain a license to perform the procedure, and the first cases were approved in 2018.

    Issues with MRT

    • Transfer of Defective Mitochondria: There is a minimal risk of transferring small amounts of defective mitochondria along with healthy ones during the procedure.
    • Long-Term Safety: The long-term safety of MRT is still being studied, and ongoing monitoring is necessary to assess any potential risks or effects.
    • Ethical and Social Concerns: MRT raises ethical and social considerations related to the creation and destruction of embryos, use of donor gametes, and altering the germline.
    • Limited Availability: MRT is a highly regulated procedure, and its availability may be limited to specific countries or cases approved by regulatory bodies.
    • Emotional and Psychological Impact: Undergoing MRT involves emotional implications and decision-making, which can have an impact on individuals and couples involved.

     

     

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  • What is Carbon Dating? How does it work?

    carbon dating

    Central Idea: Allahabad high court ordered the ASI to conduct the carbon dating process of the ‘Shivling’ found in the premises of the Gyanvapi mosque, without causing any damage to the structure.

    What is Carbon Dating?

    • Carbon dating is a widely-used method for determining the age of organic materials that were once living.
    • The method is based on the radioactive decay of Carbon-14 (C-14), an isotope of carbon with an atomic mass of 14.
    • It works by measuring the ratio of C-12 to C-14 in the atmosphere, as well as in plants and animals that acquire carbon through photosynthesis or food consumption.

    The half-life concept

    • Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of the radioisotope present at any given time will undergo spontaneous disintegration during the succeeding 5,730 years.
    • Because carbon-14 decays at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an organism died can be made by measuring the amount of its residual radiocarbon.

    Limitations of Carbon Dating

    • Carbon dating has certain limitations and cannot be applied in all circumstances.
    • It is not suitable for determining the age of non-living things such as rocks.
    • Carbon dating becomes less accurate for objects older than 40,000-50,000 years, as the amount of detectable C-14 becomes significantly small.
    • Other radiometric dating methods are employed to determine the age of inanimate objects, which rely on the decay of radioactive elements present in the material.
    • Examples of such methods include potassium-argon dating and uranium-thorium-lead dating, which analyze the ratios of specific isotopes to estimate the age of rocks.

    Other Dating Methods

    In addition to radiometric dating, there are alternative methods to determine the age of objects.

    • Cosmogenic nuclide dating: CRN is one such method that utilizes radioactive decay to estimate age and is commonly used to study the age of ice cores in Polar Regions.
    • Potassium-argon dating: A radiometric dating method that measures the ratio of potassium to argon isotopes in rocks to determine their age.
    • Uranium-thorium-lead dating: A radiometric dating method that analyses the ratios of uranium, thorium, and lead isotopes in rocks to estimate their age.

     

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  • Indian Space Policy 2023: A Vision that Needs Legislative Support

    Space Policy

    Central Idea

    • India’s new space policy released in 2023 is a promising move towards a flourishing commercial presence in space. However, the policy needs to be accompanied by clear rules and regulations and suitable legislation to create a conducive environment for private sector participation in the Indian space industry.

    The Indian Space Policy 2023

    • The Indian Space Policy 2023 is a short 11-page document that includes a vision to enable, encourage and develop a flourishing commercial presence in space.
    • It recognizes the private sector as a critical stakeholder in the entire value chain of the space economy.
    • It makes five key points and outlines the roles of various entities, including the Department of Space, ISRO, Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe), and the NewSpace India Limited (NSIL).
    • The policy lays out a strategy and spells out the roles of the entities mentioned above.

    What is mean by The Second Space Age and its features?

    • The Second Space Age refers to a period in the space industry following the early 1990s when private sector involvement in space technology began to increase.
    • The Second Space Age is characterized by the following features:
    • Increased private sector involvement: The Second Space Age has seen private sector companies take a more prominent role in the space industry. This shift has led to innovation and growth, with private companies investing in space tourism, satellite-based services, and other commercial applications of space technology.
    • Commercial applications of space technology: The Second Space Age is marked by a shift towards commercial applications of space technology. Private sector companies are investing in satellite-based services such as broadband, OTT, and 5G, which promise a double-digit annual growth rate.
    • Increased global competition: The Second Space Age has led to increased global competition in the space industry. Countries such as China, India, and private companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic are competing for a share of the space industry’s market.
    • Increased collaboration: The Second Space Age has seen increased collaboration between government agencies and private sector companies. This collaboration has led to the development of new technologies and innovative solutions to problems faced in space exploration.

    Space Policy

    Facts for prelims

    IN-SPACe

    • IN-SPACe stands for Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre.
    • It is a new regulatory body that was set up by the Indian government in 2020 to promote and regulate the activities of non-government entities (NGEs) in the Indian space sector.
    • The primary objective of IN-SPACe is to create an enabling environment for private sector participation in the Indian space industry.
    • IN-SPACe will be responsible for granting licenses and permits to private companies for carrying out space-related activities, including the establishment and operation of space objects, ground-based assets, and related services such as communication, remote sensing, and navigation.

    New Space India Limited (NSIL)

    • NSIL is a public sector company under the Department of Space, Government of India.
    • It was established in March 2019 as the commercial arm of ISRO to enable commercial exploitation of ISRO’s research and development activities, products, and services.
    • NSIL’s primary objective is to facilitate the transfer of technologies developed by ISRO to industries for commercial exploitation.
    • It aims to promote the development of the Indian space industry and create a level playing field for the private sector in the space domain.
    • NSIL also aims to launch new satellites and provide space-based services such as satellite-based communication, navigation, and remote sensing.
    • NSIL is also responsible for organizing and coordinating the participation of Indian industries in international exhibitions, symposiums, and workshops related to the space sector.

    Gaps in Indian Space Policy 2023

    • Lack of legislative framework: The policy provides a broad framework for promoting private sector participation in the Indian space industry but lacks a legislative framework to support it. A regulatory body like IN-SPACe needs legislative authority to be effective.
    • Lack of clear rules and regulations: The policy framework envisaged will need clear rules and regulations pertaining to FDI and licensing, government procurement to sustain the new space start-ups, liability in case of violations, and an appellate framework for dispute settlement.
    • Ambiguity in IN-SPACe’s position: IN-SPACe currently functions under the purview of the Department of Space, and its position is ambiguous. The Secretary (Space) is also the Chairman of ISRO, the government entity to be regulated by IN-SPACe. This ambiguity could create conflicts of interest and undermine IN-SPACe’s effectiveness.
    • Lack of timelines: The policy sets out an ambitious role for IN-SPACe but provides no timeline for the necessary steps ahead. There is no indicative timeline for ISRO’s transitioning out of its current practices, nor is there a schedule for IN-SPACe to create the regulatory framework.

    Way ahead: Steps to implement the policy effectively

    • Enactment of a new Space Activities Bill: The draft Space Activities Bill, which lapsed in 2019 with the outgoing Lok Sabha, needs to be reintroduced and enacted. The Bill will provide a comprehensive legislative framework to support the Indian Space Policy 2023 and regulate space activities carried out by government and non-government entities.
    • Establishment of a clear regulatory framework: IN-SPACe needs to create a clear regulatory framework that sets out the rules and regulations for private sector participation in the Indian space industry. This will ensure a level playing field and promote the growth and development of the industry.
    • Timely implementation of the policy: The Indian government needs to work closely with ISRO and other stakeholders to ensure the timely implementation of the policy. This will require setting clear timelines for the necessary steps ahead and ensuring their effective implementation.
    • Promotion of private sector participation: The Indian government needs to promote private sector participation in the Indian space industry by providing incentives, facilitating technology transfer, and creating a conducive environment for innovation and growth.
    • Collaboration with international partners: The Indian government needs to collaborate with international partners to share knowledge, expertise, and resources in the space domain. This will help in promoting innovation and growth in the Indian space industry and enhancing India’s global competitiveness.

    Space Policy

    Conclusion

    • The Indian Space Policy 2023 is a promising move towards creating a conducive environment for private sector participation in India’s space industry. However, it needs legislative support to create a stable and predictable regulatory framework and ensure a level playing field for the private sector. A vision that needs legislative support to launch India into the Second Space Age.

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    Also read:

    The Indian Space Policy 2023 and The Role of Private Sector

     

  • FDA approves first vaccine for Respiratory Syncytial Virus

    respiratory

    The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the first vaccine ‘Arexvy’ for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) to lower respiratory tract disease in people older than 60 years.

    What is Respiratory Syncytial Virus?

    • Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is a common respiratory virus that can cause illness in people of all ages.
    • It is the most common cause of lower respiratory tract infections in infants and young children, and it can also affect older adults and people with weakened immune systems.
    • RSV is highly contagious and spreads through droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes, or by touching a surface contaminated with the virus and then touching one’s face.
    • Symptoms of RSV can range from mild to severe, including runny nose, coughing, sneezing, fever, wheezing, and difficulty breathing.
    • In severe cases, it can lead to pneumonia, bronchiolitis, or death.

    Identification of Protein F

    • In 2013, Barney Graham and other scientists identified the key protein, protein F, responsible for the RSV virus to infect human cells.
    • The protein, introduced in humans, elicited neutralizing antibodies against the virus.

    Approval and Efficacy of Arexvy

    • The FDA has approved Arexvy, the first RSV vaccine to be approved anywhere in the world, manufactured by GSK.
    • The approval was based on a phase-3 trial carried out on nearly 25,000 participants.
    • It showed a single dose of the vaccine reduced the risk of developing lower respiratory tract disease caused by the RSV virus by 82.6% and severe disease by 94.1% in people older than 60 years.
    • The vaccine will be available for older adults in the U.S. before the 2023-2024 RSV season.

     

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  • Scientists help find new kind of Molecular Motor

    motor

    Central Idea: Researchers from the National Centre for Biological Sciences have discovered a new kind of molecular motor that has potential applications in biology and medicine.

    What is a molecular motor?

    • Cells use molecular motors to move things like organelles and molecules, and disruption of these processes can lead to diseases.
    • Molecular motors use biochemical energy to do mechanical work.

    What did the new study find?

    • The study found that EEA1, a long protein, can regain its rigid shape to create a new kind of two-part molecular motor.
    • EEA1 regains its rigid shape through a reaction called GTP hydrolysis, mediated by enzymes called GTPases.
    • The researchers believe this could mark a new class of molecular machines that operate as motors in a unique way with novel collective effects.

    Why is the finding significant?

    • The motor is different from most motors because it doesn’t produce a lever-like back-and-forth action and it uses GTP instead of ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate) for energy.
    • EEA1 exerts an entropic force on the membranes that it pulls, which is a unique feature.
    • The finding could have potential applications for understanding membrane fusion and for many other mechanochemical proteins or assemblies.

    What are the potential applications?

    • The discovery of the molecular motor could have potential applications in biology and medicine.
    • The study provides a general mechanism that is applicable to many mechanochemical proteins or assemblies that harness chemical energy for mechanical work in cells.

     

     

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  • Cell-Based Meat: An Environmentally Friendly and Ethical Alternative

    Meat

    Central Idea

    • Cell-based meat, also known as cultured meat, is a promising alternative to traditional meat production that could offer ethical and environmental benefits. However, there are still many unknowns about its safety, nutritional value, and potential health risks that must be addressed.

    What is Cell-based meat in short?

    • Cell-based meat, also known as cultured meat, lab-grown meat, or clean meat, refers to meat produced from animal cells grown in a laboratory, rather than from animals raised and slaughtered for meat.

    Steps in the process of producing cell-based meat

    • Cell isolation: A small sample of cells is taken from an animal through a biopsy, which could be done using a needle or a small incision. The cells are typically muscle cells, which are capable of replicating and forming muscle tissue.
    • Cell culture: The cells are then placed in a culture medium, which provides the necessary nutrients and growth factors for the cells to multiply and form muscle tissue. The medium typically contains fetal bovine serum (FBS), which is derived from the blood of a cow fetus, but scientists are working to develop plant-based and other alternatives to FBS.
    • Tissue engineering: The muscle cells are then placed on a scaffold, which can be made of various materials such as collagen or cellulose. The scaffold provides structure and support for the cells to form muscle tissue.
    • Bioreactor cultivation: The scaffold with the muscle cells is then placed in a bioreactor, which provides a controlled environment for the muscle tissue to grow. The bioreactor can be adjusted to provide the right levels of oxygen, nutrients, and other factors for optimal growth.
    • Harvesting: Once the muscle tissue has grown to the desired size, it is harvested and processed into the final product, which can take various forms such as ground meat or whole cuts.

    Report on cell-based meat market

    • A 2021 report by United States-based analytics firm Markets and Markets estimated that the global cell-based meat market will reach $214 million by 2027 at a compound annual growth rate of 61.4 per cent.
    • The report cites increasing concerns over animal welfare, environmental sustainability, and the growing demand for protein-rich foods as key drivers of market growth.
    • The firm recently received approval from Singapore Food Agency for its ‘chicken bites’ made from cultured meat. It is a significant step toward the future of food.

    Advantages of cell-based meat

    • Environmental sustainability: The production of cell-based meat requires fewer resources such as land, water, and energy compared to traditional meat production. It also produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
    • For instance:
    1. A recent study published by Switzerland-based research publisher Frontiers mentions cell-based meat could reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by up to 78 per cent and land use by up to 99 per cent.
    2. Another study by ACS Publications said that cell-based meat production could reduce GHG emissions by up to 96 per cent and land use by up to 99 per cent compared to traditional beef production.
    • Ethical: Cell-based meat production does not involve animal slaughter and hence is considered more humane.
    • Healthier: Cell-based meat can be produced with lower levels of saturated fat and no antibiotics or hormones. It can also be tailored to provide specific nutritional benefits.
    • Food security: As the global population continues to increase, traditional meat production may not be able to keep up with the demand for protein. Cell-based meat can provide an alternative source of protein that can be produced in a controlled and sustainable manner.
    • Pathogen-free: Cell-based meat is produced in a sterile and controlled environment, reducing the risk of pathogen contamination.
    • For instance: A team of researchers published a report in ScienceDirect in 2018, which says that cell-based meat production could reduce the risk of contamination by bacteria such as E. coli and Salmonella. This would largely be due to the elimination of animal slaughter and reliance on antibiotics in animal husbandry.
    • No harmful growth hormones: Lab-grown meats are free of growth hormones as well. Commercial livestock factories use these hormones to expedite the growth of farm animals. Their excess use has harmful health outcomes.
    • For instance: A European Union-appointed research committee examined six growth hormones used in raising cattle. It concluded that the growth hormones had developmental, neurobiological, genotoxic, and carcinogenic effects.

    Potential challenges of cell-based meat

    • Culture medium: Researchers have yet to develop a culture medium that is completely free of animal-derived components. The use of fetal bovine serum, for example, contradicts the ethical standards of lab-grown meat production.
    • Health effects: The health effects of consuming cell-based meat are still unknown, and there are concerns about dysregulation and the development of cancerous properties in cultured meat.
    • Consumer acceptance: Most consumers still prefer natural products and may be hesitant to adopt cell-based meat due to its “unnatural” origins. Educating consumers about the safety, quality, and sustainability of cell-based meat will be important for its commercial success.
    • Variety: Researchers have not yet developed true muscle with an organized network of blood vessels, which makes it difficult to reproduce the original flavor and taste of meat derived from different species.
    • Cost: Currently, the production of cell-based meat is more expensive than traditional meat production. As the technology advances and economies of scale are achieved, it is expected that the cost will decrease, but it may take some time before cell-based meat becomes cost-competitive with traditional meat.

    Way ahead

    • Addressing the cost: Currently, cell-based meat is expensive to produce. Research and development should focus on finding ways to reduce production costs and making the final product more affordable.
    • Improving the taste and texture: While cell-based meat is similar to traditional meat, there are still some differences in taste and texture. Researchers need to work on improving the taste and texture to make it more appealing to consumers.
    • Increasing variety: Currently, only a limited range of cell-based meats are available. Researchers need to work on producing different types of meat to offer consumers a wider range of options.
    • Addressing regulatory concerns: As cell-based meat is a new technology, there are still some regulatory concerns that need to be addressed. Governments and regulatory bodies should work with the industry to establish guidelines and regulations to ensure the safety and quality of cell-based meat products.
    • Educating consumers: Consumer awareness and education are key to the success of cell-based meat. People need to be made aware of the benefits of cell-based meat and be educated about how it is produced and the safety and quality standards that are in place.

    Conclusion

    • Cell-based meat can be the food of the future as it is free of antibiotics, germs, and doesn’t emit GHGs. However, their success depends on developing new cell lines and optimising growth conditions to produce meat that is more similar in texture, flavour, and nutritional composition to traditional meat. The health risks and consumer acceptance of cell-based meats are still largely unknown, so rigorous testing and regulatory oversight are needed to meet high safety standards.

    Mains question

    Q. Cultured meat is becoming a promising alternative to traditional meat production, however there are also potential risks associated with it. Discuss.

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  • Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: Exclusion From Indian School and College Curricula

    Evolution

    Central Idea

    • The recent exclusion of Darwin’s theory of evolution from Indian school and college curricula has prompted concerns among scientists and educators, as it is one of the most firmly established theories in science that explains the origin of all forms of life and rescues the explanation from the belief in an intelligent designer.

    What is Darwin’s theory of evolution?

    Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution is one of the most influential scientific theories ever proposed. The main ideas behind Darwin’s theory of evolution include:

    • Variation: Within a population, there is variation in traits among individuals.
    • Inheritance: Some of these traits are passed on from parents to offspring.
    • Overproduction: Most populations produce more offspring than can survive to maturity.
    • Natural selection: Individuals with traits that are advantageous for survival and reproduction in their particular environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits to their offspring, while those with less advantageous traits are less likely to survive and reproduce.
    • Adaptation: Over time, the frequency of advantageous traits in a population will increase, resulting in a better match between the organisms and their environment, known as adaptation.
    • Common descent: All living organisms share a common ancestor that lived in the distant past.

    Evolution

    Facts for prelims: Scientists and theories

    Scientist Theory Key Points
    Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics Organisms change and evolve during their lifetimes based on the environmental needs, and these changes can be passed on to their offspring. For example, giraffes developed longer necks by stretching their necks to reach higher branches, and these longer necks were passed on to their offspring.
    Thomas Malthus Theory of Population Populations tend to increase faster than the food supply, leading to competition for resources. Only the individuals with advantageous traits survive, while others perish. This concept of “survival of the fittest” became an important part of Darwin’s theory.
    Charles Darwin Theory of Natural Selection Organisms with advantageous traits have a greater chance of surviving and reproducing, passing on those traits to their offspring. Over time, this leads to the development of new species through the process of speciation. Darwin’s theory also emphasized the importance of variation, competition, and adaptation in the evolutionary process.
    Alfred Russel Wallace Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Similar to Darwin’s theory, Wallace’s theory emphasized the role of natural selection in the development of new species. However, Wallace also proposed that natural selection could result in the divergence of species into separate branches, which could eventually become new genera or families.
    Hugo de Vries Mutation Theory Mutations, or sudden genetic changes, are the driving force behind evolution rather than gradual changes over time. De Vries also proposed the concept of “species-polymerism”, where multiple species could arise from a single ancestral species through mutations.
    Stephen Jay Gould Theory of Punctuated Equilibrium Evolutionary change occurs in rapid bursts (punctuations) followed by long periods of stability (equilibrium). This theory challenges the traditional view of evolution as a slow, gradual process. Gould also emphasized the role of contingency or chance events in shaping evolutionary history.

    Why must students and teachers in school concern themselves with Darwin’s theory?

    • Understanding the origin of human beings and other forms of life: Darwin’s theory of evolution is one of the most firmly established theories in science that explains the origin of human beings and all other forms of life in the world.
    • Challenging the belief in an intelligent designer: Darwin’s theory rescues the explanation of the origin of life from the belief that an ‘intelligent designer’ (read: god) built them the way they are and put them in their place.
    • Encouraging critical inquiry and embracing critique: The teaching of Darwin’s theory offers possibilities of confronting science’s own troubled history and requires caution alongside curiosity, creativity and imagination.
    • Understanding the historical and contemporary world of science: The teaching of Darwin’s theory can help students understand that science is rarely the story of a lone man, and it is shaped by the social and cultural beliefs of its times.
    • Enhancing scientific literacy: Understanding Darwin’s theory of evolution is crucial for enhancing scientific literacy, as it is an essential component of biology and a cornerstone of modern science.

    Criticisms: Darwin’s theory of evolution

    • Lack of transitional fossils: Some critics argue that there is a lack of transitional fossils, which are intermediate forms of species between ancestral and descendant forms. They claim that the absence of such fossils undermines the validity of the theory of evolution.
    • Incomplete explanation of variation: While Darwin’s theory of natural selection explains how variation arises in a population, it does not fully explain the source of the variation. Some critics argue that the theory does not account for genetic mutations or other mechanisms that can generate variation.
    • Lack of empirical evidence for macroevolution: While the theory of evolution is well-supported by empirical evidence for microevolution (small-scale changes within a species), critics argue that there is insufficient empirical evidence to support macroevolution (large-scale changes between species).
    • The origin of life: Critics argue that Darwin’s theory does not explain how life originated in the first place.
    • Complexity of living organisms: Critics argue that the complexity of living organisms cannot be explained solely by natural selection and that there must be some other explanation for the diversity and complexity of life.

    Conclusion

    • Science is a messy affair that requires caution alongside curiosity, creativity, and imagination. The teaching of Darwin’s theory must offer possibilities of confrontation without underplaying its strengths. While Darwin must remain in our textbooks, the way it is taught must change to include other influences that have shaped the theory and the consequent use of the theory by others and himself.

    Mains Question

    Q. What is Darwin’s theory of evolution? As the theory is being dropped from the school textbooks, discuss why must students and teachers in school concern themselves with Darwin’s theory?

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  • Web 3.0: A Transformative Tool for India’s Digital Asset Opportunity

    Web 3.0

    Central Idea

    • India’s digital asset opportunity is worth $1.1 trillion by 2032, and the third-generation web or Web 3.0 is crucial to realizing this potential. However, the complex and diverse descriptors used by experts make the policy perspective of Web 3.0 difficult to comprehend. The article aims to explain the transformative role of Web 3.0 in India’s digital asset opportunity.

    What is Web 3?

    • Third-generation internet web: Web 3, also known as the third-generation web, is a term used to describe the next iteration of the internet, which is expected to be decentralised, privacy-oriented, blockchain-driven, and crypto-asset friendly.
    • Radically transformation the way data generated: It seeks to radically transform the manner in which data is generated, monetised, shared, and circulated, and advocates for decentralised data storage systems with the objective of unshackling the oligopolistic grip of technology behemoths over data.
    • Bold elements: Web3 has bold elements such as the strategic role it assigns to non-custodial wallets that function as digital passports for users to access blockchain-enabled transaction platforms, as well as replacing micro-economic organizations with decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs).

    What is Web 3.0?

    • Semantic web: Web 3.0 upholds the property of the semantic web, which is powered by Artificial Intelligence (AI).
    • Ability to recombine information: The real point about the semantic web is its ability to recombine information available on different websites to generate new content and knowledge resources that are more authentic and creative.
    • Robust capability of data analytics: Followers of Web 3.0 claim that their version is endowed with robust capability on the data analytics front. This way, it is argued that Web 3.0 will create far better search engines.

    How is Web 3 is different from 3.0?

    Web3

    Web 3.0
    Decentralized, privacy-oriented, blockchain-driven and crypto-asset friendly Powered by Artificial Intelligence (AI) and upholds the property of the ‘semantic web’
    Seeks to radically transform the manner in which data is generated, monetized, shared and circulated. Has the ability to recombine information available on different websites to generate new content and knowledge resources that are more authentic and creative
    Advocates decentralised data storage systems to unshackle the oligopolistic grip of technology behemoths over data. Robust capability on the data analytics front to create far better search engines
    Has file-sharing systems such as the Inter-Planetary File System which are cryptographically protected, more secure and capable of functioning off Internet and off blockchains. The web 3.0’s semantic web is powered by Artificial Intelligence and the ability to recombine information available on different websites to generate new content and knowledge resources that are more authentic and creative.
    Strategic role it assigns to non-custodial wallets that function as digital passports for users to access blockchain-enabled transaction platforms. Has the ability to facilitate ‘analytics at the edge’ providing considerable scope for mapping the water use habits of communities
    Seeks to replace micro-economic organizations with decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs). Can yield insights from large volumes of community data generated by IoT-enabled development programs such as the Jal Jeevan Mission
    Seeks to create a distributed economic system where special classes of native digital tokens and cryptocurrencies would form the media of monetary circulation. Can improve early warning systems for floods due to data analytics facilities being obtained at the sub-basin level
    Seeks to raise the efficiency of peer-to-peer transactions. Can be utilized to draw upon the talent pool for the benefit of rural communities.

    Web 3.0

    Benefits of Web 3.0 for India

    • Handicraft industry: Web 3.0 could enable India’s handcraft enterprises to secure their innovations using digital tokens. Instruction tools based on Web 3.0 could also allow for the rapid dissemination of grassroots innovations from master artisans to fellow members, improving the economic fortunes of craftsmen and artisan communities in north-east, western, and peninsular India.
    • Rural development: India’s major digital public infrastructure push and the large-scale deployment of Internet of Things (IoT) in rural development projects offer major possibilities for deploying Web 3.0 in rural areas. Web 3.0’s (decentralized) analytics systems could help overcome the limitation of data analytics capabilities at the community level.
    • For Instance: Web 3.0 could yield insights from large volumes of community data generated by IoT-enabled development programs such as the Jal Jeevan Mission. Web 3.0’s natural advantage of facilitating analytics at the edge provides considerable scope for mapping the water use habits of communities.
    • Capital mobilization: Web 3.0 could generate asset tokens that are native to the new-gen web and have the potential to function as capital mobilization tools for Web3 projects. Stakeholders of DAOs can also utilize tokens to exercise their voting rights.
    • Peer-to-peer transactions: Web3 seeks to replace micro-economic organizations with decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs). In general, Web3 platforms would serve to raise the efficiency of peer-to-peer transactions.
    • Data storage: Web3 advocates for decentralized data storage systems with the objective of unshackling the oligopolistic grip of technology behemoths over data. Web3 has file-sharing systems such as the Inter-Planetary File System which are cryptographically protected, more secure and capable of functioning off Internet and off blockchains.

    What are the challenges for web 3.0 in India?

    • Lack of infrastructure: Web 3.0 requires a robust and reliable internet infrastructure, which is currently lacking in many parts of India. This can hinder the adoption of Web 3.0 technologies, especially in rural areas.
    • Limited digital literacy: India still has a large population with limited digital literacy. This can make it difficult for users to understand and access Web 3.0 applications, especially in remote areas where access to digital devices and the internet is limited.
    • Regulatory challenges: The use of blockchain and cryptocurrency technologies, which are central to Web 3.0, faces regulatory challenges in India. The government has been hesitant to embrace these technologies, which could hinder the development of Web 3.0 applications.
    • Skill gaps: The development of Web 3.0 applications requires a specific set of technical skills, which are currently in short supply in India. Bridging this skill gap will be crucial to enable the development and deployment of Web 3.0 technologies in India.
    • Security concerns: Web 3.0 applications are based on decentralized systems, which are inherently more secure than centralized systems. However, they are still susceptible to cyber attacks and security breaches

    Constraints related to data analytics in rural areas

    • Lack of data analytics capabilities at the community level, resulting in untapped data resources such as the Atal Bhujal Yojana.
    • Rapid pace of data generation in rural areas outpacing the capacity for data analytics to keep up.
    • Limited availability of data analytics talent in rural areas.

    Way ahead

    • Developing a third-gen web strategy that optimizes public interest by combining the features of Web3 and Web 3.0.
    • Providing incentives for decentralised analytics and tokenising them to draw upon the talent pool for the benefit of rural communities.
    • Exploring tokenisation and applying blockchain solutions for development programs, as proposed in India’s National Blockchain Strategy 2021.
    • Addressing challenges such as lack of awareness, regulatory uncertainty, and insufficient infrastructure.
    • Building capacity for data analytics and web design in rural areas.
    • Encouraging the deployment of Web 3 applications in rural development projects and community data initiatives.
    • Partnering with global experts to leverage their knowledge and experience in the field.
    • Facilitating research and development to enhance the capabilities of Web 3 technologies.
    • Ensuring that the development of Web 3 is inclusive and accessible to all, regardless of socio-economic status.

    Conclusion

    • India’s National Blockchain Strategy 2021 must craft a third-gen web strategy that optimises public interest by combining the welcome features of Web3 and Web 3.0. By providing incentives for decentralised analytics and tokenising them, it is possible to draw upon the talent pool for the benefit of rural communities. Web 3.0 can be a transformative tool for India’s digital asset opportunity worth $1.1 trillion by 2032.

    Mains Question

    Q. What is web 3.0. How it is seen as different from web 3? Discuss the potential benefits and challenges of web 3.0 for India.

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  • Genome Sequencing and the Genome India Project

    genome

    The Department of Biotechnology recently said that the exercise to sequence 10,000 Indian human genomes and create a database under the Centre-backed Genome India Project is about two-thirds complete.

    What is the Genome India Project?

    • The Genome India Project has been described by those involved as the “first scratching of the surface of the vast genetic diversity of India”.
    • It involves over 20 scientists from institutions including the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) in Bengaluru and a few IITs.
    • It is inspired by the Human Genome Project (HGP 1990-2003) an international programme that led to the decoding of the entire human genome.

    About Human Genome Project (HGP)

    Description
    Description HGP was a global research effort aimed at mapping and sequencing the entire human genome, which is the complete set of genetic instructions for building and maintaining a human being.
    Timeframe Began in 1990 and was completed in 2003.
    Collaborators A collaborative effort involving scientists from many countries.
    Coordinators Institutes of Health (NIH) and the US Department of Energy (DOE), US
    Achievements Scientists were able to identify the location of many human genes and provide information about their structure and organization.
    Impact It has led to the development of new diagnostic tools and therapies for a wide range of genetic disorders and has provided valuable insights into the basic biology of human development and evolution.
    Fields affected Medicine, biotechnology, and pharmaceuticals.

     

    What is a Genome?

    • Every organism’s genetic code is contained in its Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA), the building blocks of life.
    • The discovery that DNA is structured as a “double helix” by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, started the quest for understanding how genes dictate life, its traits, and what causes diseases.
    • A genome is all the genetic matter in an organism. It is defined as “an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes.
    • Each genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism.
    • In humans, a copy of the entire genome contains more than 3 billion DNA base pairs.
    • Each pair consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes, which means that for 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell, there are roughly 20,500 genes located on them.

    What does genome mapping tell us?

    • Some of the genes are lined up in a row on each chromosome, while others are lined up quite close to one another and this arrangement might affect the way they are inherited.
    • For example, if the genes are placed sufficiently close together, there is a probability that they get inherited as a pair.
    • Genome mapping, therefore, essentially means figuring out the location of a specific gene on a particular region of the chromosome and also determining the location of and relative distances between other genes on that chromosome.

    How did it help during the pandemic?

    • Genomic sequencing became a crucial tool in the fight against COVID-19 to track emerging variants, conduct further studies, and develop vaccines.
    • In January 2020, Chinese scientist Yong-Zhen Zhang sequenced the genome of the novel coronavirus and shared it online, allowing researchers to study the virus’s genetic code.
    • India also implemented a sequencing framework, the Indian SARS-COV-2 Genomics Consortia (INSACOG), to scan coronavirus samples from patients and flag the presence of variants.

    What is the significance of GIP?

    • HGP has a major diversity problem as most genomes (over 95%) mapped under HGP have been sourced from urban middle-class white people.
    • Thus, HGP should not really be seen as representative of the human genome.

    In this context, the GIP aims to vastly add to the available information on the human species and advance the cause, both because of the scale of the Indian population and the diversity here. This diversity can be depicted by:

    1. Horizontal Diversity: The Indian subcontinent has been the site of huge migrations, where the first migrations were from Africa. Also, there have been periodic migrations by various populations from all around the world, making this a very special case of almost all races and types intermingling genetically.
    2. Vertical Diversity: There has been endogamy or inter-marriage practised among distinct groups, resulting in some diseases passed on strictly within some groups and some other traits inherited by just some groups.

    Its applications

    • Personalized Medicine: Genome sequencing can help in the development of personalized medicine. By analyzing a patient’s genetic makeup, doctors can determine the best course of treatment for a particular disease. This approach can help in the early detection of diseases, identifying the risk of inherited diseases, and providing targeted therapies.
    • Disease Diagnosis: Genome sequencing can be used to diagnose genetic disorders that are caused by mutations in a single gene, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. It can also help in identifying the genetic causes of complex diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer’s, and diabetes.
    • Drug Development: Genome sequencing can help in the development of new drugs by identifying targets for drug therapy. It can also help in the identification of biomarkers that can be used to monitor the effectiveness of drugs.
    • Agriculture: Genome sequencing can help in the development of improved crops and livestock by identifying genes that control traits such as yield, disease resistance, and quality.
    • Forensics: Genome sequencing can be used in forensic investigations to identify suspects by analyzing their DNA. It can also help in identifying missing persons and victims of disasters.

    Challenges involved

    • Fear of Scientific Racism: In India, a nation divided by identity politics, scientific work in mapping genetic groups may further strengthen the divisions in the society based on the prevalent notion of race.
    • Data & Storage: India is yet to pass a Data Privacy Bill with adequate safeguards and launching the GIP before the privacy question is settled could give rise to another set of problems.
    • Medical Ethics: In a project that aims only to create a database of genetic information poses a risk of doctors privately performing gene modification.

     

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  • Microbes found near Mt. Everest

    Central idea

    • Researchers conducted a genetic analysis of microbial communities on the South Col of Sagarmatha (Mount Everest).
    • The article examines the human microbiota on the inhospitable slopes of Mount Everest esp. the South Col ridge.

    Microbial Communities on the South Col

    • Microbial communities were collected from sediment samples left by human climbers on the South Col, 7,900 meters above sea level (msl).
    • The South Col is inhospitable due to low oxygen, strong winds, high levels of UV radiation, and temperatures below minus 15 degrees Celsius.
    • Visible signs of life are absent above 6,700 msl except for a few species of moss and a jumping spider.
    • Microbes are carried to high altitudes by birds, animals, winds, and dust particles.

    Microbes found

    • Using sophisticated methods such as 16S and 18S rRNA sequencing, the microbe hunters were able to identify the bacteria and other microorganisms found on the South Col.
    • 16s rRNA is a component of the 30S subunit in prokaryotic ribosomes while 18s rRNA is a component of the 40S subunit in eukaryotic ribosomes.
    • 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing is an amplicon sequencing technique used to identify and compare species of bacteria present within a given sample.
    • 16S rRNA gene sequencing is used to study phylogeny and taxonomy of samples from complex microbiomes or environments that are difficult or impossible to study.
    • Microbes like Modestobacter altitudinis and the fungus, naganishia, which are known to be UV-resistant survivors are found there.

    History of Mount Everest and Naming

    • Nepal’s eminent historian, late Baburam Acharya, gave the Nepali name Sagarmatha to Mount Everest in the 1960s.
    • Andrew Waugh, British Surveyor General of India, discovered Mount Everest in 1847 and named it after his predecessor, Sir George Everest.
    • Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematician and surveyor, was the first person to show that Mount Everest was the world’s highest peak in 1852, with the help of a special device.

     

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