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Subject: Science and Technology

  • What is Sonoluminescence? 

    Why in the News?

    Recent studies have provided deeper insights into the mechanics of Sonoluminescence, particularly the conditions under which light is emitted from collapsing bubbles in liquids.

    What is Sonoluminescence?

    • Sonoluminescence is a phenomenon in which small gas bubbles in a liquid emit short bursts of light when exposed to intense sound waves.
    • The light is produced when the bubble undergoes rapid compression and expansion.
    • This is due to the alternating high- and low-pressure phases of the sound waves, causing the gas inside to heat up and emit light.
    • This phenomenon was discovered in 1934 by two German engineers while they were studying sonar technology, which uses sound waves to detect objects underwater.
    • They noticed that when a tiny bubble in a liquid was hit by strong sound waves, it emitted a brief flash of light.

    Mystery behind Sonoluminescence

    • Although the general mechanism is understood, the exact details of how the light is produced remain a mystery. 
    • Scientists are still exploring the precise processes that cause the gases inside the bubble to ionize and emit light at such high temperatures.

    Examples of Sonoluminescence

    • Controlled Experiments: In laboratory settings, scientists create sonoluminescence by trapping a bubble in a liquid and subjecting it to high-frequency sound waves.
    • Pistol Shrimp: When the shrimp (marine creature with a specialized claw) snaps its claw shut, it shoots out a jet of water that moves so fast it creates a low-pressure bubble. The bubble then collapses, producing a loud sound, intense heat, and sometimes a brief flash of light.

  • Polaris Dawn Mission: A Private Space Endeavor

    Why in the News?

    Polaris Dawn is set to be the first privately-funded mission to conduct a spacewalk, aiming to reach an altitude of about 700 kilometers above Earth, the highest altitude for a human space mission to date.

    What is Polaris Dawn Mission?

    • Polaris Dawn is a privately-funded space mission led by billionaire entrepreneur Jared Isaacman, in collaboration with SpaceX.
    • It is set to be the first non-government mission to conduct a spacewalk.
    • This 700km altitude will surpass the current record held by NASA’s Gemini 11 mission in 1966.
    • The mission will test new spacesuits designed by SpaceX to protect astronauts from high radiation levels encountered in the Van Allen Belts.

    What are the Van Allen Belts?

    • The Van Allen Belts are two zones of charged particles that surround Earth, held in the magnetosphere.
    • These belts were discovered in 1958 by American physicist James Van Allen.
    1. Inner Belt: This belt is located approximately 680 to 3,000 km above Earth’s surface and is primarily composed of high-energy protons. It is formed by cosmic rays interacting with Earth’s atmosphere.
    2. Outer Belt: Located about 15,000 to 20,000 km above Earth’s surface, the outer belt mainly consists of high-energy electrons captured from solar wind.

    Why are the Van Allen Belts dangerous for Humans?

    • The Van Allen Belts are dangerous for humans because they contain high levels of radiation that can pose significant health risks to astronauts.
    • The belts are filled with charged particles that can cause radiation sickness, damage human tissues, and increase the risk of cancer. 

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

    1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.
    2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
    3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 1 and 3 only
    (c) 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • A look at ongoing Indian Space Missions

    Why in the News?

    Since Chandrayaan 3’s successful moon landing on August 23, 2023 and its declaration of National Space Day, ISRO has remained highly active with several key missions, despite a quieter phase at Sriharikota.

    Key Missions and Milestones:

    Details Date
    Chandrayaan 3
    • Successful Moon landing by Vikram lander.
    • August 23 declared as India’s National Space Day.
    		 August 23, 2023
    Aditya L1
    • Solar science mission to study the Sun.
    • Reached Earth-Sun L1 point on January 6, 2024.
    • Studied solar storm in May 2024.
    		 Launched: September 2, 2023
    L1 Orbit: January 6, 2024
    Gaganyaan TV-D1
    • First abort mission for Gaganyaan program.
    • Tested Crew Escape System (CES); crew module recovered by INS Shakthi.
    		 October 21, 2023
    XPoSat
    • X-ray Polarimeter Satellite to study radiation polarization.
    • Second such space observatory after NASA’s IPEX.
    		 Launched: January 1, 2024
    INSAT-3DS
    • Meteorological satellite launched to support GSLV credibility for NISAR mission.
    • Enhances weather forecasting capabilities.
    		 Launched: February 17, 2024
    RLV-TD (Pushpak)
    • Reusable Launch Vehicle tests (LEX-02 and LEX-03) conducted.
    • Simulated landing conditions for future Orbital Return Flight.
    		 LEX-02: March 22, 2024
    LEX-03: June 7, 2024
    SSLV
    • Final development flight of Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).
    • Successfully placed EOS-08 and SR-0 Demosat in orbit.
    		 August 16, 2024
    ISRO Roadmaps
    • 25-year roadmap until 2047.
    • Plans for crewed lunar missions, sample-return missions, and the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) by 2035.
    		 Announced: December 2023
    Next-Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV)
      • New 3-stage launch vehicle under development to replace GSLV.
    • Powered by semi-cryogenic, liquid, and cryogenic engines.
    • Project report submitted to Union Cabinet.
    		 Project report submitted: February 2024
    NSIL Missions
    • Agreement with SpaceX for GSAT-20/GSAT-N2 launch.
    • SSLV launch service agreement with an Australian company.
    		 2024
    Private Space Missions
    • Agnikul Cosmos launched SoRTeD-01, first semi-cryogenic engine vehicle from Indian soil.
    • Skyroot and Dhruva Space progressing with tests and launches.
    		 2024
    IN-SPACe Initiatives
    • Released ‘Norms, Guidelines, and Procedures for Authorisation of Space Activities’.
    • Granted first satellite broadband license to Eutelsat
    • OneWeb and first ground station service license to Dhruva Space.
    • 100 % Direct FDI policy.
    		 2024

  • Imports weaken Indian pharma

    Why in the News?

    • The government has introduced two import-based initiatives to meet domestic needs, which could potentially dampen the growth of the domestic industry.
    • New medicines are generally under patent protection, preventing Indian companies from producing affordable generics/biosimilars.

    Impact of two initiatives on Domestic Industry:

    • Global Tendering for 120 Medicines: The Department of Expenditure (DoE) allowed the Ministry of Health to buy 120 medicines, including popular anti-diabetes and anti-cancer drugs, through global tenders for government programs. This decision, which specifies certain brands for over 40 of these medicines, could increase the monopoly of foreign companies in India.
    • Customs Duty Removal on Cancer Medicines: The 2024-25 Union Budget proposed removing the 10-12% customs duty on three cancer medicines marketed by AstraZeneca. While intended to reduce prices, this measure is unlikely to significantly lower costs and may instead increase reliance on imports, further disadvantaging domestic producers.

    Status of Indian Pharma

    • India is a leading manufacturer of vaccines, accounting for 60% of global production.
    • India supplies 70% of vaccines used by the WHO.
    • India is a major exporter of generic drugs, accounting for 20% of global exports.
    • The industry is expected to grow to over $130 billion by 2030.

    What are Biosimilar guidelines?

    • Biosimilar guidelines in India are regulatory frameworks established by the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) and the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) to govern the development, approval, and marketing of biosimilars.
    • Biosimilars are biologic medical products that are highly similar to an already approved original biologic (known as the reference product), with no clinically meaningful differences in terms of safety, purity, and potency.

    Status Biosimilars: 

    • Significant Market Size: The biosimilar market in India is valued at approximately $2.2 billion, and it is projected to reach $40 billion by 2030. This growth is driven by the expiration of patents for several key biologics, which opens the door for biosimilar development.
    • Product Approvals: As of now, over 70 biosimilars have been approved in India, covering a range of therapeutic areas, including oncology, diabetes, and autoimmune diseases. Notable examples include:
      • Adalimumab (for rheumatoid arthritis)
      • Trastuzumab (for breast cancer)
      • Filgrastim (for neutropenia)
      • Insulin glargine (for diabetes)

    Outdated Biosimilar Guidelines in India:

    • Obsolete and Resource-Intensive:
      • India’s biosimilar guidelines are outdated, requiring mandatory animal studies, which are no longer necessary in developed countries like the U.S. and EU with stringent regulatory standards.
      • The guidelines also mandate clinical trials, while WHO and U.K. guidelines treat clinical trials as an exception rather than a rule.
    • Barrier for Domestic Producers:
      • The stringent requirements for animal studies and mandatory clinical trials create significant barriers for Indian producers, making it difficult for them to compete with their global counterparts.
    • Impact on Patient Access:
      • According to the International Generic and Biosimilar Medicines Association, eliminating these duplicative requirements could lead to significant savings in time and resources, ultimately improving patient access to affordable biosimilars.

    Way forward: 

    • Update Regulatory Guidelines: Modernize India’s biosimilar guidelines by removing unnecessary requirements like mandatory animal studies and clinical trials, aligning them with global standards to reduce barriers for domestic producers.
    • Support Local Production: Utilize provisions in the Patents Act to promote domestic manufacturing of affordable medicines, reducing reliance on imports and strengthening the local pharmaceutical industry.

  • What is Tera Hertz Spectrum?

    Why in the News?

    The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) released its recommendations on the Tera Hertz Spectrum.

    About Tera Hertz (THz) Spectrum

    • The THz Spectrum refers to a range of electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 100 GHz (gigahertz) and 10 THz (terahertz). 
      • This spectrum lies between microwaves and infrared light.
      • It is known as the “THz gap” because it has been less explored compared to other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
    • Key Features:
      • Unique Properties: THz waves can pass through many materials like clothing, paper, and wood but are absorbed by water and metals.
      • Applications: Used for advanced technologies like imaging, communications, and spectroscopy.
      • Potential Uses: Security scanning, medical imaging, and high-speed wireless communication.

    Impact of recent recommendation:

    • THEA will encourage innovation in Tera Hertz technologies, supporting the ‘Make in India’ initiative.
    • The opening of specific frequency bands will boost the development and deployment of next-generation wireless technologies and automotive safety systems in India.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to Visible Light Communication (VLC) technology, which of the following statements are correct?

    1. VLC uses electromagnetic spectrum wavelengths 375 to 780 nm.

    2. VLC is known as long-range optical wireless communication.

    3. VLC can transmit large amounts of data faster than Bluetooth.

    4. VLC has no electromagnetic interference.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only

    (b) 1, 2 and 4 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (d) 2, 3 and 4 only

  • WHO investigating new Polio strain in Meghalaya

    Why in the News?

    The World Health Organization (WHO) is investigating a suspected new strain of polio in a two-year-old child from Tikrikilla, Meghalaya.

    What is Vaccine-Derived Polio?

    • The Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) contains a weakened form of the poliovirus that activates an immune response in the body.
    • The vaccine-virus is excreted after vaccination and can circulate in the environment.
    • In rare cases, if the population is under-immunized, the excreted virus can mutate over time and revert to a form capable of causing paralysis.
    • This mutated virus is known as circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV).

    About Polio:

    Details
    Nature of Disease Crippling and potentially deadly viral infectious disease affecting the nervous system.
    Types of Poliovirus – WPV1 (Wild Poliovirus type 1)
    – WPV2 (Wild Poliovirus type 2, eradicated globally)
    – WPV3 (Wild Poliovirus type 3, eradicated globally)
    Current Status WPV1 remains in circulation in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
    Transmission Primarily through the faecal-oral route or contaminated water/food.
    Affected Population Largely affects children under 5 years of age.
    Impact Virus multiplies in the intestine, may invade the nervous system, causing paralysis.
    Prevention – No Cure: Preventable through immunization.
    – Vaccines:
    – OPV: Oral Polio Vaccine given at birth, with doses at 6, 10, 14 weeks, and a booster at 16-24 months.
    – IPV: Injectable Polio Vaccine given with the 3rd dose of DPT under UIP.
    India’s Status
    • Pulse Polio Immunization Initiative (1995)
    • Declared polio-free by WHO in 2014, with the last wild poliovirus case reported in 2011.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] ‘Mission Indradhanush’ launched by the Government of India pertains to:

    (a) immunization of children and pregnant women

    (b) construction of smart cities across the country

    (c) India’s own search for the Earth-like planets in outer space

    (d) New Educational Policy

  • Can blood tests for cancer save more lives? 

    Why in the News?

    A multi-cancer early detection test can identify circulating tumour DNA or circulating tumour cells at an early stage, allowing for more effective treatment.

    Status of Cancer:

    • Cancer’s Impact in India: Cancer accounts for 18% of deaths from noncommunicable diseases in India, making it the second leading cause of mortality. In 2022, there were approximately 1.46 million new cancer cases, with projections indicating a 12% increase by 2025.
    • Common Cancers as per GLOBOCAN: Among women, the most prevalent cancers are breast, cervical, ovarian, and colorectal.
      • For men, lung, esophageal, colorectal, and stomach cancers are the most common.
    • Survival Rates and Detection: Late detection of cancer significantly reduces survival rates and increases treatment costs. In contrast, early detection through screening improves treatment outcomes and quality of life. 
      • Countries are aligning with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals 3 to enhance early cancer detection.
    • Limited screening: As per NHFS, screening is limited in India which is primarily to cervical, breast, and oral cancers, with only 0.2-2% of the population having undergone any form of screening.

    What is a Multi-Cancer Early Detection (MCED) Test?

    • A multi-cancer early detection (MCED) test is a new type of blood test that can screen for multiple types of cancer simultaneously. These tests look for cancer signals, such as circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) and circulating tumor cells (CTCs), released by cancerous cells into the bloodstream at early stages.

    Role of Blood-based tests in the detection of cancer:

    • Early Detection of Multiple Cancer Types: Blood tests, particularly multi-cancer early detection (MCED) tests, can identify cancer signals from over 50 different types of cancer, including those that currently lack effective screening methods.
      • For example, a recent study demonstrated that a new blood test could detect 93% of stage 1 cancers in men and 84% in women by analyzing protein biomarkers.
    • Non-Invasive and Accessible Screening: Blood tests are non-invasive and can be performed with a simple blood draw, making them more accessible compared to traditional screening methods like colonoscopies or imaging tests. This ease of use encourages more individuals to participate in screening.

    Limitation of blood test in the detection of Cancer:

    • Lack of Proven Mortality Benefit: It is still unclear whether detecting cancers earlier with MCED tests will actually reduce cancer deaths. More research is needed to determine if earlier treatment based on MCED results improves outcomes compared to waiting for symptoms to develop.
    • Regulatory Challenges: MCED tests are not yet approved by regulatory bodies like the U.S. FDA or India’s CDSCO because of not undergone rigorous premarket review to prove they benefit patients.
    • False Positives: One significant risk is false positive results, where the test indicates cancer when none is present. When multiple tests are used for screening, the false positive rate can be as high as 50%.

    Way forward:

    • Strengthening Screening Infrastructure and Research: India should invest in expanding its cancer screening infrastructure, ensuring that more types of cancer are included beyond cervical, breast, and oral cancers.
    • Public Awareness and Regulatory Preparedness: Increasing public awareness about the importance of early cancer detection is crucial. At the same time, regulatory bodies like CDSCO should establish clear guidelines and frameworks for the evaluation, approval, and monitoring of MCED tests.

  • Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) Mission

    Why in the News?

    European scientists are preparing to execute a first-of-its-kind ‘Double Slingshot’ orbital maneuver to guide the JUICE probe towards Jupiter using a double slingshot technique.

    About JUICE Mission:

    Details
    Launch
    • By European Space Agency (ESA) on April 14, 2023, Ariane 5 rocket
    • To study Jupiter’s Moons
    Aim Investigating the potential for life on Jupiter’s moons and understanding the Jovian system
    Mission Duration
    • Approximately 12 years
    • Expected arrival at Jupiter in July 2031
    Primary Objectives
    • Ganymede Exploration: Study its surface, subsurface, magnetic field, and potential subsurface ocean to assess habitability.
    • Europa Exploration: Investigate the surface, subsurface, and potential ocean beneath the ice; analyze interactions with Jupiter’s magnetosphere to assess its potential to support life.
    • Callisto Exploration: Study its surface, geological diversity, and possible subsurface ocean; understand its history of impacts and tectonic activity.
    • Jupiter System Exploration: Analyze Jupiter’s atmosphere, magnetosphere, and their interactions with the moons; study the dynamics of the magnetosphere and its influence on the surrounding environment.
    Key Instruments
    • JANUS: Jovis, Amorum ac Natorum Undique Scrutator (Optical Camera)
    • RIME: Radar for Icy Moons Exploration
    • J-MAG: JUICE Magnetometer
    • MAJIS: Moons and Jupiter Imaging Spectrometer
    Significance
    • First interplanetary spacecraft to the outer Solar System planets not launched by the United States
    • First mission set to orbit a moon other than Earth’s Moon

    What is the Double Slingshot Maneuver?

    • The JUICE probe will first use the moon’s gravity to set itself on the correct trajectory towards Earth.
    • Immediately after, it will use Earth’s gravity to slow down and redirect towards Venus and, eventually, Jupiter.

    Significance of the Gravity Assist

    • This technique, used for decades in space exploration, involves using a planet or moon’s gravity to alter the speed or direction of a spacecraft.
    • It is unique as it involves back-to-back gravity assists using both the moon and Earth’s gravity, which has never been attempted before.

    PYQ:

    [2020] The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to

    (a) Voyager-2

    (b) New Horizons

    (c) LISA Pathfinder

    (d) Evolved LISA

  • What is Quantum Non-Locality?

    Why in the News?

    A recent study published in Physical Review Letters by Indian researchers has revealed that a universal standard for measuring quantum non-locality is impossible.

    What is Quantum Nonlocality?

    • Quantum Nonlocality is a mysterious connection between distant objects that challenges the classical idea of local realism, where no faster-than-light communication is allowed.
    • It’s crucial for technologies like secure communication, random number generation, and cryptographic key creation.
    • Easy Explanation:
      • Imagine two particles that are created together and then move far apart, even to opposite ends of the universe.
      • In classical physics, any effect on one particle would need a signal to travel to the other, taking time.
      • But in quantum physics, Quantum Nonlocality means these particles are instantly connected, affecting each other no matter the distance, as if linked by an invisible thread that works faster than light.

    Historical Background: Bell’s Theorem (1964)

    • Physicist John Stewart Bell introduced a theorem that challenged the classical idea of ‘local realism’ in quantum systems.
      • Local Realism: In classical physics, objects are believed to have definite properties independent of observation and are only influenced by their immediate surroundings.
      • Quantum Challenge: Bell demonstrated that in quantum systems with multiple, distant parts, correlations appear that cannot be explained by local realism.
    • Bell’s theorem was confirmed through experiments, leading to the recognition of quantum nonlocality, which was honored with the 2022 Physics Nobel Prize.

    Recent Research and Findings

    • The research demonstrates that a universal standard for measuring and comparing quantum nonlocality is impossible.
      • It shows that the nature of nonlocality varies based on the type of correlation, with infinite unique points on the correlation boundary.
      • There is no single, universal resource in the realm of quantum nonlocality; instead, each nonlocal resource is unique, capable of performing specific tasks that others cannot.
    • This observation plays a key role in secure communication, random number certification, and cryptographic key generation.

    PYQ:

    [2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

    (a) Cloud Services

    (b) Quantum Computing

    (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies

    (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

  • What is the Hayflick Limit?

    Why in the News?

    Leonard Hayflick, the renowned biomedical researcher who made a discovery about the limits of cell division in somatic cells (Hayflick Limit) has passed away at 98.

    What is the Hayflick Limit?

    • In the early 1960s, Hayflick discovered that somatic (non-reproductive) cells have a finite number of divisions, typically between 40-60 times.
    • This phenomenon, the ‘Hayflick limit’ suggests that aging occurs because cells eventually stop dividing.
      • This leads to the accumulation of senescent cells that contribute to the aging process.
    • The “ultimate Hayflick limit” for humans is estimated to be around 125 years.
    • Beyond this, no amount of lifestyle changes or medical interventions can extend the human lifespan.
    • Hayflick’s discovery has been applied to cells from various animals, revealing different Hayflick limits based on species’ lifespans.
    • Ex. Galapagos turtles, have cells that can divide approximately 110 times, whereas laboratory mice have a much lower limit of around 15 divisions.

    Broader Implications and Research

    • Hayflick’s discovery led to the discovery of telomeres in the 1970s.
      • Telomeres are protective DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes, which shorten with each cell division.
    • When telomeres reach a critical length, cell division stops, which correlates with the Hayflick limit.
    • In the 1980s, scientists discovered telomerase, a protein capable of replenishing telomeres, which is naturally active in cancer cells, allowing them to bypass the Hayflick limit.

    PYQ:

    [2011] Regular intake of fresh fruits and vegetables is recommended in the diet since they are a good source of antioxidants. How do antioxidants help a person maintain health and promote longevity?

    (a) They activate the enzymes necessary for vitamin synthesis in the body and help prevent vitamin deficiency

    (b) They prevent excessive oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the body and help avoid unnecessary wastage of energy

    (c) They neutralize the free radicals produced in the body during metabolism

    (d) They activate certain genes in the cells of the body and help delay the ageing process