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  • Ladakh’s glaciers are slowing as the mountains warm

    Why in the News?

    A new study in the journal The Cryosphere reports that glaciers in the Zanskar region of Ladakh are moving more slowly than they did 30 years ago, as sustained warming thins them and reduces their driving force. The slowdown carries long term implications for the Indus basin, where glacier melt sustains river flows during dry summer months.

    Why are the Zanskar glaciers slowing down?

    1. Thinning mechanism: When a glacier loses more ice than it gains over many years it becomes thinner, and thinner ice exerts less driving force, causing it to flow more slowly.
    2. Warming link: The study connects mass loss, thinning and reduced flow, showing that thinning is not only a consequence of warming but also weakens the glacier’s ability to move.
    3. Downstream effect: Slower flow means the lower parts of a glacier receive less replenishment from higher elevations, making continued shrinkage more likely.
    4. Local variation: Glacier geometry, debris cover and conditions at the snout influence how quickly each glacier responds.

    What is peak water?

    1. Definition: Peak water is the point at which increased melting from a shrinking glacier temporarily raises river runoff before the water supply begins to decline.
    2. Why it matters: More melting may boost flows in the near term, but once glaciers lose a substantial fraction of their stored ice, their meltwater contribution to rivers is expected to drop.

    What did the study find?

    1. Study design: The researchers examined how glacier flow changed from 1992 to 2023 across 12 glaciers in the Zanskar Himalaya using satellite derived surface velocities.
    2. Velocity decline: Glaciers slowed by 2.4 metres per year per decade on average.
    3. Faster thinning: The pace of surface thinning increased from around 0.22 metres per year between 2000 and 2005 to around 0.57 metres per year between 2015 and 2020.
    4. Sample caveat: The 12 glaciers studied are representative, but the Zanskar basin hosts around 1,755 glaciers, so caution is needed before extending the findings to all of Ladakh.

    What are the implications for the Indus basin?

    1. Summer flows: Glacier melt contributes significantly to Indus river flows during the dry summer months, so long term storage decline threatens that supply.
    2. Multiple dependencies: River flows also depend on snowfall, rainfall, groundwater and water management, so slowing glaciers alone will not immediately cause shortages.
    3. Sectors at risk: Continued thinning and slowdown signal declining long term water storage, with implications for water security, agriculture, hydropower and downstream ecosystems in coming decades.

    Why do the study’s own limitations qualify its conclusions?

    1. Sub surface blind spot: Satellite surface velocity observations cannot directly reveal processes beneath the glacier, such as subglacial hydrology or basal sliding, which strongly influence motion.
    2. Data gaps: Long term field measurements of ice thickness, mass balance and bed conditions remain limited in the region, making full attribution of observed changes difficult.
    3. Exceptions to the trend: Some glaciers can temporarily accelerate due to increased meltwater at the bed, glacier surges, or interactions with proglacial lakes.

    What does the global comparison show?

    1. European Alps and Alaska: Similar glacier slowdowns have been reported, driven by the same thinning and reduced driving stress mechanism.
    2. Canadian Arctic and Andes: These regions show comparable slowdowns linked to warming.
    3. Tibetan plateau: Parts of the plateau display the same dominant mechanism of thinning leading to slower flow.
    4. Shared lesson: Glacier slowdown is becoming widespread globally, though local glacier characteristics still shape individual behaviour.

    Conclusion

    The study establishes that Zanskar glaciers are not only losing mass but slowing down, with thinning reducing their capacity to move and replenish lower reaches. This points to a long term decline in stored water that will eventually reduce Indus basin flows after a phase of peak water. The findings underscore the need for sustained ground based monitoring to validate satellite data and to prepare downstream communities for shifting water availability.

    Back2Basics:

    Foundational Context: The Cryosphere and Himalayan Glaciers

    1. About: The cryosphere comprises the frozen parts of the Earth, including glaciers, snow cover, permafrost and ice, that store and release freshwater.
    2. Third Pole: The Hindu Kush Himalaya holds the largest ice mass outside the polar regions and is often called the Third Pole.
    3. Function: Himalayan glaciers act as natural reservoirs, releasing meltwater in warmer months to sustain rivers, agriculture and ecosystems in otherwise arid areas.
    4. Climate indicator: High altitude glaciers respond distinctly to warming, making them valuable natural indicators of environmental change.

    The Zanskar Region and Indus Basin

    1. Location: The Zanskar region lies in Ladakh and hosts some of the largest and most extensive glaciers in the Himalaya.
    2. Climatic setting: Its glaciers receive most of their snowfall from mid latitude westerly disturbances during winter and sit at high altitude.
    3. Indus basin: The Indus rises in the Tibetan plateau and flows through Ladakh, with glacier melt feeding its dry season flows.
    4. Significance: The basin supports water security, agriculture and hydropower across northern India and beyond.

    Key Facts about Himalayan Glacier Monitoring

    1. Study journal: The findings appear in the journal The Cryosphere.
    2. Zanskar glacier count: The basin hosts around 1,755 glaciers, of which 12 were studied.
    3. Observation record: The study covers more than 30 years, from 1992 to 2023.
    4. Peak water: A key concept describing the temporary runoff increase before long term decline.

    Challenges in Glacier Conservation and Monitoring

    1. Data scarcity: Long term field measurements of ice thickness and mass balance are limited in high altitude terrain.
    2. Warming pace: Rising temperatures accelerate thinning and mass loss.
    3. Black carbon: Soot deposition on ice lowers reflectivity and speeds melting.
    4. Glacial lake hazards: Meltwater expansion raises the risk of glacial lake outburst floods.
    5. Downstream dependence: Millions rely on glacier fed rivers, amplifying the impact of any decline.

    Way Forward

    1. Expand ground monitoring: Add measurements of ice thickness, mass balance and meltwater discharge to validate satellite data.
    2. High altitude weather stations: Install continuous observation stations to capture varied mountain climate conditions.
    3. Basin water planning: Prepare Indus basin water management for the eventual decline after peak water.
    4. Reduce black carbon: Cut regional emissions that hasten glacier melt.
    5. Regional cooperation: Share transboundary glacier and river data across the basin.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] How will the melting of Himalayan glaciers have a far-reaching impact on the water resources of India?

    Linkage: The PYQ directly relates to the impact of Himalayan glacier melt on India’s water resources. Zanskar glacier slowdown and thinning highlight the emerging risks to Indus basin flows, water security and long-term freshwater availability.

  • Centre relaxes construction hurdles in Ganga flood plain

    Why in the News?

    A gazette order of 10 August from the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has removed the blanket declaration in the 2016 law that the Ganga flood plain is a construction free zone, replacing the total ban with a stratified, approval based regime. The change exposes the tension between protecting the river’s ecology and permitting development in areas subject only to moderate or rare flooding.

    What is the River Ganga Authorities Order that was amended?

    1. Instrument: The River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection and Management) Authorities Order, 2016, notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, governs protection and management of the river.
    2. Original ban: The 2016 order declared the bank of the river and its flood plain a construction free zone to reduce pollution and preserve natural groundwater recharge.
    3. What the amendment does: The 10 August order deletes the no construction clause and replaces the total ban with a regulated system in which some construction is permissible after official clearances.

    How does the new stratified definition of a flood plain work?

    1. Active flood plain: The zone immediately along the channel that submerges at least once every five years, where strict building prohibitions continue, with minor exceptions for temporary set ups such as religious events.
    2. Regulatory zone: The middle band subject to moderate flooding once every five to 25 years, where construction is now permissible subject to clearances.
    3. Warning zone: The outer periphery that floods only during severe events of 25 to 100 year frequency, where construction is also now permissible subject to clearances.
    4. Earlier gap: The 2016 order banned construction in the active flood plain but never defined what active meant, an inconsistency the amendment claims to correct.

    Why did the government amend the order?

    1. Stated rationale: A senior official said the amendment does not dilute standards but corrects an inconsistency in the law between the flood plain definition and the construction ban.
    2. Litigation pressure: Litigants had routinely cited the blanket construction free zone mandate against riverfront roads, embankments and sewage treatment plants before the National Green Tribunal.
    3. Scope limit: The new order does not grant blanket permission for development and keeps a regulated approval process in place.

    Does the change protect the river or dilute safeguards?

    1. The protection case: Confining strict prohibition to the active flood plain leaves the ecologically most sensitive channel margin protected while allowing regulated use elsewhere.
    2. The dilution concern: Opening the regulatory and warning zones to construction reduces the natural groundwater recharge and pollution buffer the 2016 order sought to preserve.
    3. Enforcement risk: An approval based system shifts protection from a clear legal bar to case by case clearances that depend on administrative capacity and vigilance.

    What are the challenges to regulating the Ganga flood plain?

    1. Encroachment pressure: Dense settlement and commercial demand along the river make flood plains attractive for construction.
    2. Weak demarcation: Flood plain zoning requires accurate hydrological mapping that is incomplete across the basin.
    3. Fragmented jurisdiction: Multiple states, municipal bodies and agencies share authority over the river, complicating uniform enforcement.
    4. Climate variability: Changing flood frequencies undermine fixed five, 25 and 100 year return period assumptions.
    5. Pollution load: Untreated sewage and industrial effluent continue to enter the river despite protection orders.

    Conclusion

    The amendment ends the 2016 blanket ban on flood plain construction and installs a three zone regime that permits regulated building beyond the five year flood line after clearances. The government frames this as correcting a legal inconsistency, while the ecological question is whether an approval based system can protect the river’s recharge and pollution buffer as effectively as an outright prohibition did. The next test lies in how clearances are granted and whether active flood plain protection holds against development pressure.

    Back2Basics:

    Foundational Context: Ganga Rejuvenation in India

    1. About: Ganga rejuvenation is a national programme to abate pollution and conserve and rejuvenate the river through sewage treatment, riverfront management and flow protection.
    2. Scale: The Ganga basin covers roughly one fourth of India’s land area and supports a large share of the population.
    3. Institutional design: The effort is coordinated by the National Mission for Clean Ganga under the National Ganga Council, with the Jal Shakti Ministry as the nodal ministry.
    4. Approach: It combines infrastructure such as sewage treatment plants with regulatory tools such as flood plain zoning and construction control.

    Statutory Framework Governing the Ganga

    1. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: The parent statute under which the 2016 River Ganga Authorities Order and its amendment are notified.
    2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: Establishes pollution control boards that regulate effluent discharge into the river.
    3. River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection and Management) Authorities Order, 2016: Creates the tiered institutional structure, including the National Ganga Council and NMCG, and governs flood plain regulation.
    4. National Green Tribunal Act, 2010: Constitutes the forum where flood plain and riverfront disputes are adjudicated.

    National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)

    1. Nature: Implementation wing for Ganga rejuvenation and the Namami Gange programme.
    2. Governing framework: Registered as a society and given statutory backing through the River Ganga Authorities Order, 2016.
    3. Parent body: Functions under the National Ganga Council, chaired by the Prime Minister.
    4. Nodal ministry: Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation under the Jal Shakti Ministry.
    5. Mandate: Ensures effective abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of the river by adopting a comprehensive, basin wide approach.

    Government Initiatives / Schemes for Ganga Rejuvenation

    1. Namami Gange Programme: Integrated conservation mission covering sewage treatment, riverfront development, afforestation and biodiversity.
    2. Arth Ganga: Model to build a sustainable economic bridge between the river and people through livelihoods, tourism and natural farming along the banks.
    3. Ganga Gram: Programme for sanitation and solid waste management in villages along the river.
    4. Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Water conservation campaign that supports groundwater recharge in the basin.

    Key Facts about the Ganga

    1. Length: The river runs roughly 2,525 kilometres from Gomukh to the Bay of Bengal.
    2. National River: The Ganga was declared India’s National River in 2008.
    3. Flood plain zones: The amended order recognises active, regulatory and warning zones based on five, 25 and 100 year flood frequencies.
    4. Dolphin link: The Gangetic dolphin, the National Aquatic Animal, depends on healthy river flow.

    Challenges in Ganga Conservation

    1. Sewage burden: A large volume of untreated urban sewage continues to reach the river.
    2. Industrial effluent: Tanneries and other industries discharge pollutants along the course.
    3. Reduced flow: Barrages, abstraction and diversion lower ecological flow in stretches.
    4. Flood plain encroachment: Construction and settlement erode the river’s natural buffer.
    5. Coordination gaps: Multiple states and agencies weaken uniform enforcement.
    6. Solid waste and religious use: Immersion waste and idol immersion add pollution loads.

    Way Forward

    1. Complete flood plain mapping: Finalise accurate zonation to make the three tier regime enforceable.
    2. Strengthen sewage treatment: Close the gap between sewage generated and treatment capacity.
    3. Ensure ecological flow: Mandate minimum environmental flows across barrages.
    4. Tighten clearance scrutiny: Apply strict, transparent conditions before approving construction in regulatory and warning zones.
    5. Empower basin governance: Reinforce NMCG and state bodies with clear enforcement powers.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2015] Discuss the Namami Gange and National mission for clean Ganga (NMCG) programmes and causes of mixed results from the previous schemes. What quantum leaps can help preserve the river Ganga better than incremental inputs?

    Linkage: The PYQ directly connects with Ganga rejuvenation, conservation and the effectiveness of government interventions. The flood plain amendment highlights the challenge of balancing river conservation, pollution control and development pressures.

  • Vande Mataram Bill gets President’s assent, becomes law

    Why in the News

    The President gave assent to the Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Bill, 2026, making it law. The amendment criminalises intentional disruption or prevention of the singing of the National Song Vande Mataram, extending to it the legal protection currently accorded to the National Anthem.

    What is the Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Bill, 2026?

    1. Core provision: The Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Bill, 2026, criminalises intentional disruption or prevention of the singing of the National Song Vande Mataram.
    2. Parent statute: It amends the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971, which already penalises insults to the National Flag, the Constitution, and the National Anthem.
    3. Equal status: The legislation grants Vande Mataram the same legal protection as the National Anthem, Jana Gana Mana.
    4. Legislative passage: The Lok Sabha passed the Bill on 30 July and the Rajya Sabha cleared it a day earlier, with Presidential assent completing enactment.

    What are the concerns raised on implementation?

    1. Practicality of enforcement: A senior Opposition member questioned whether respect and patience for the song can be legislated.
    2. Duration burden: A full rendition of Vande Mataram lasts about three minutes and ten seconds, against roughly 52 seconds for Jana Gana Mana.
    3. Standing time: Where a State Song precedes both, audiences could be expected to stand for nearly six minutes before and after every official function.
    4. Counterproductive risk: The stated concern is that mandating full rendition could reduce rather than promote respect for the National Song.

    About National Symbols in India

    1. National Anthem: Jana Gana Mana, adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 24 January 1950, protected under the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.
    2. National Song: Vande Mataram, composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, given equal status with the National Anthem by the Constituent Assembly on 24 January 1950.
    3. National Flag: The Tiranga, governed by the Flag Code of India, 2002, and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.
    4. Legal duty: Article 51A(a) makes it a fundamental duty of every citizen to respect the Constitution, the National Flag, and the National Anthem.

    Statutory Framework Governing National Honour

    1. Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971: Penalises insults to the National Flag, the Constitution, and the National Anthem.
    2. 2026 Amendment: Extends protection to the National Song Vande Mataram against intentional disruption.
    3. Flag Code of India, 2002: Consolidates conventions and instructions on display and use of the National Flag.
    4. Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950: Restricts improper use of national emblems and names.

    Back2Basics: Vande Mataram

    1. Author: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, who composed it and later included it in the novel Anandamath.
    2. Historical role: It became a rallying song of the freedom movement, first sung at the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress.
    3. Constitutional status: The Constituent Assembly resolved on 24 January 1950 that it shall have equal honour with the National Anthem, Jana Gana Mana.
    4. Original language: Composed largely in Sanskritised Bengali.
    5. Full rendition: A complete rendition runs about three minutes and ten seconds.

  • Rural skilling programme trainees not getting jobs, says panel

    Why in News

    A Parliamentary Standing Committee flagged a major gap between training and employment under the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY), highlighting low wages, poor retention and distress migration.

    What is DDU-GKY?

    • Ministry: Ministry of Rural Development.
    • Launched: 2014.
    • Target: Poor rural youth aged 15–35 years.
    • Nature: Placement-linked skill development scheme.
    • Training providers are assessed on training, placement and post-placement retention.
    • Implemented through Project Implementing Agencies (PIAs).

    Key Findings of the Committee

    • 18.38 lakh youth trained and 11.94 lakh placed as of March 2026.
    • Low wages and relocation costs lead to early job exits.
    • 9.65 lakh women trained and 6.03 lakh placed.
    • PIAs focus more on initial placement than sustained employment.

    Major Challenges

    • Skill-training does not match labour market demand.
    • Poor training quality and infrastructure.
    • Low wages reduce job retention.
    • Migration creates financial and social pressures.
    • Weak post-placement tracking.

    Committee Recommendations

    • Near 100% placement tracking.
    • Mandatory industry linkages and local placement drives.
    • District-level placement cells.
    • Migration assistance, mentorship and retention support.
    • Assess PIAs on sustained employment, not just initial placement.
    • Set and monitor minimum wage employment targets.

    Skill Development Initiatives

    • Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)
    • DAY-NRLM
    • Rural Self Employment Training Institutes (RSETIs)
    • Startup Village Entrepreneurship Programme (SVEP)
    • Skill India Digital

    [2023, GS2, 15 marks] Skill development programs have succeed in increasing human resources supply to various sectors. In the context of the statement analyze the linkages between education, skill and employment.”

    [2018] With reference to Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, consider the following statements:

    1. It is the flagship scheme of the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
    2. It, among other things will also impart training in soft skills, entrepreneurship, financial and digital literacy.
    3. It aims to align the competencies of the unregulated workforce of the country to the National Skill Qualification Framework.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    [a] 1, 2, and 3

    [b] 1 and 3 only

    [c] 2 only

    [d] 2 and 3 only

  • Centre approves 1 billion Rs 10, Rs 20 polymer banknotes

    Why in News?

    Government approved 1 billion polymer notes each of ₹10 and ₹20 for field trials, following an RBI proposal under Section 25 of the RBI Act, 1934.

    What are Polymer Banknotes?

    • Made from a thin plastic film instead of cotton-paper.
    • More durable, moisture-resistant and hygienic.
    • Offer enhanced anti-counterfeiting features.
    • Have a longer circulation life, reducing replacement needs.

    Government Approval

    • Denominations: ₹10 and ₹20.
    • Quantity: 1 billion each.
    • Will circulate alongside paper notes.
    • Regular issuance will depend on successful field trials.
    • Procurement is at an initial stage, so cost and timeline are not yet fixed.

    Why Polymer Notes?

    • Longer life → lower replacement costs.
    • Higher security → difficult to counterfeit.
    • Better durability → resistant to dirt, water and wear.
    • Global precedent → used by several countries.

    Currency Management: Key Facts

    • RBI: Sole issuer of banknotes, except ₹1 note.
    • Government of India: Issues coins and ₹1 note.
    • Section 22, RBI Act: RBI’s sole right to issue banknotes.
    • Section 24: Specifies permissible denominations.
    • Section 25: Design, form and material require Central Government approval on RBI recommendation.
    • Coinage Act, 2011: Governs coins and ₹1 note.

    Back2Basics: RBI

    • Established under RBI Act, 1934; began operations in 1935.
    • Nationalised in 1949.
    • Functions as India’s central bank and monetary authority.
    • Manages currency, monetary policy, banking and payment systems.

    [2025] Which of the following are the sources of income for the Reserve Bank of India?
    I. Buying and selling Government bonds
    II. Buying and selling foreign currency
    III. Pension fund management
    IV. Lending to private companies
    V. Printing and distributing currency notes
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    [A] I and II only

    [B] II, III and IV

    [C] I, III, IV and V

    [D] I, II and V

  • Govt extends PM E-DRIVE scheme timeline, sop halved

    Why in the news?

    The Centre has extended the PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE) Scheme for electric two wheelers till 31 March 2028 and halved the per unit incentive to Rs 2,500 per kilowatt hour from Rs 5,000 earlier. The move signals a planned tapering of demand support as electric two wheeler costs fall and the market matures.

    What is the PM E-DRIVE Scheme?

    1. What it is: PM E-DRIVE is the central scheme providing demand incentives and support infrastructure for electric mobility, administered by the Ministry of Heavy Industries. It succeeds the earlier FAME programme as the main demand side push for electric vehicles.
    2. Outlay and duration: It carries an outlay of Rs 11,900 crore and is implemented from 1 April 2024 till 31 March 2028.
    3. Two wheeler support: For electric two wheelers, the scheme sets a total fund support of Rs 2,767 crore from the Ministry of Heavy Industries.

    What has changed?

    1. Timeline extended: The electric two wheeler segment has been extended till 31 March 2028.
    2. Incentive halved: The per unit incentive is cut to Rs 2,500 per kilowatt hour from Rs 5,000 per kilowatt hour earlier.
    3. Per vehicle cap lowered: The incentive is capped at Rs 5,000 per vehicle, down from Rs 10,000 per vehicle in FY 2024-25.
    4. Eligibility window: Registered electric two wheelers can avail the Rs 2,500 per kilowatt hour incentive for the period between 1 April 2025 and 31 March 2028.
    5. Price ceiling: The maximum ex factory price for an electric two wheeler to qualify is Rs 1.5 lakh.
    6. Lower of two limits: The incentive is limited to the specified cap or 15 per cent of the ex factory price of the electric two or three wheeler, whichever is lower, and is subject to periodic review as vehicle costs fall.

    Back2Basics: PM E-DRIVE Scheme

    1. Ministry: Ministry of Heavy Industries.
    2. Launch year: 2024, implemented from 1 April 2024 to 31 March 2028.
    3. Outlay: Rs 11,900 crore.
    4. Aim: Accelerate adoption of electric vehicles and build charging and testing infrastructure.
    5. Beneficiaries: Buyers of electric two, three, and heavier vehicles, state transport undertakings, and charging infrastructure providers.

    Government Initiatives for Electric Mobility

    1. FAME India (Phase I and II): Earlier demand incentive scheme for electric and hybrid vehicles.
    2. PLI Auto Scheme: Production Linked Incentive for advanced automotive technology products.
    3. PLI ACC Battery Scheme: Incentive for domestic advanced chemistry cell battery manufacturing.
    4. Vehicle Scrappage Policy: Phasing out unfit vehicles to spur cleaner replacements.
    5. e-AMRIT portal: A one stop information platform on electric vehicles.

    Key Facts about PM E-DRIVE

    1. Successor scheme: PM E-DRIVE succeeds FAME II as the flagship electric mobility scheme.
    2. Incentive metric: Support is calculated per kilowatt hour of battery capacity.
    3. Segment coverage: Covers electric two wheelers, three wheelers, buses, trucks, and ambulances, plus charging infrastructure.

    Challenges to Electric Vehicle Adoption

    1. Charging infrastructure gap: Public charging networks remain thin outside major cities.
    2. Battery import dependence: Reliance on imported cells and critical minerals raises cost and supply risk.
    3. High upfront cost: Purchase prices stay above comparable petrol vehicles despite incentives.
    4. Range and grid strain: Range anxiety and grid readiness limit uptake in some segments.
    5. Recycling burden: End of life battery disposal needs robust recycling systems.
    6. Incentive dependence: Demand remains sensitive to the level and continuity of subsidies.

    “[2023, GS3, 15 marks] The adoption of electric vehicles is rapidly growing worldwide. How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?”

    [2025] With reference to India, consider the following pairs: Organization Union Ministry
    1. The National Automotive BoardMinistry of Commerce and Industry
    2. The Coir BoardMinistry of Heavy Industries
    3. The National Centre for Trade
    InformationMinistry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
    How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

    [A] Only one

    [B] Only two

    [C] All the three

    [D] None

  • India’s rising dependence on U.S. LPG

    Why in the news?

    The Union Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas stated that 67 per cent of India’s liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) now comes from the United States, a drastic shift from an earlier decision to source about 10 per cent of cooking gas there. The pivot, driven by the crisis in the Strait of Hormuz, exposes that LPG security cannot be anchored to a single geography while dependence on the United States carries risks of its own.

    What is Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and how is India’s supply structured?

    1. What it is: LPG is a mix of propane and butane used mainly as cooking gas in India. It is a politically volatile fuel because shortages carry direct social and political consequences.
    2. Import dependence: India, the world’s second largest importer of LPG, imports about 60 per cent of the LPG it consumes, with nearly 90 per cent of that passing through the Strait of Hormuz.
    3. Sourcing shift: State run refiners signed a long term deal for 2.2 million tonnes of United States LPG in 2026, raising the United States share to two thirds of imports.

    Why did India pivot to United States LPG?

    1. Hormuz disruption: Disruptions in the narrow Strait of Hormuz threatened the Gulf supply route through which most Indian LPG passes.
    2. Collapse in West Asian flows: India’s LPG imports from West Asia fell almost 85 per cent between February and June 2026.
    3. Partial offset: India replaced the lost flows by lifting imports from other sources, including the United States, from where June imports reached 0.77 million metric tonnes.
    4. Availability over price: Because cooking gas is politically sensitive, the priority is making it available rather than optimising cost, so costlier United States cargoes became attractive during the crisis.

    Why is overdependence on the United States risky?

    1. Energy as leverage: Relying more on a partner that views ties through the lens of national interest risks energy being used as a bargaining tool in bilateral trade talks.
    2. History of coercive tools: The United States has historically used financial sanctions, export controls, and technology denial as foreign policy tools, seen in Iran, Iraq, Cuba, North Korea, Syria, Russia, Venezuela, Myanmar, Libya, Sudan, and Afghanistan.
    3. Third country reach: The Lindsey O. Graham Sanctioning Russia and Iran Act of 2026, proposing tariffs of up to 100 per cent on the top five buyers of Russian oil and natural gas, is a non tariff trade barrier that can influence third country transactions.
    4. Monetary spillover: Import dependence complicates monetary policy, as elevated United States inflation could keep the Federal Reserve’s rates higher for longer, strengthening the dollar and raising the rupee cost of each cargo.

    Why does proximity pricing matter?

    1. Definition: Proximity pricing is a market benefit where goods cost less when bought from a nearby place. Shorter travel distance means lower shipping costs and faster delivery.
    2. Loss of distance advantage: United States shipments take 25 to 35 days against 5 to 10 days from the Gulf, so India loses the advantage of proximity pricing.
    3. Two price benchmarks: United States LPG is Mont Belvieu propane based, while West Asian supply follows the Saudi Aramco Contract Price, and the Gulf fuel is usually cheaper at the disembarking point due to the shorter distance.
    4. Temporary reversal: Geopolitical risk has temporarily inflated West Asian supply costs, with the Saudi Contract Price rising from about 543 dollars per tonne in February to around 790 dollars in June, making United States cargoes competitive despite the longer voyage.

    How does India balance availability with cost optimisation?

    1. The core trade off: For a politically volatile fuel, ensuring supply outweighs cost optimisation, so India accepted higher priced United States cargoes to cut supply risk.
    2. Residual exposure: India may have cut Hormuz risk, but remains exposed to commodity price, dollar, and freight risks.
    3. Under recovery pressure: If domestic prices are held down while global prices rise amid rupee depreciation, oil companies’ under recoveries expand, worsening fiscal and external sector stress.

    What are the challenges to India’s LPG security?

    1. Single supplier concentration: Two thirds reliance on one country recreates the concentration risk the pivot was meant to solve.
    2. Stagnant domestic output: LPG production has stayed nearly flat while consumption grows, widening the import gap.
    3. Chokepoint vulnerability: Heavy dependence on the Strait of Hormuz leaves Gulf sourced volumes exposed to any regional conflict.
    4. Fiscal drain: Accumulated under recoveries of state oil marketing companies exceeded Rs 59,000 crore as of 31 July 2026.
    5. Currency and freight risk: Dollar denominated pricing and long shipping routes expose landed costs to exchange rate and freight swings.
    6. Thin strategic reserves: India lacks large dedicated LPG strategic reserves to buffer sudden supply shocks.

    Conclusion

    Energy security is not about replacing one supplier with another but ensuring no single player holds all the cards. India must strengthen local production, bolster multiple supply chains, and build more strategic reserves. Australia offers a shorter Indo Pacific route outside Hormuz, though its export volumes remain small.

    Back2Basics

    Energy Security and LPG in India (Foundational Context)

    1. About: Energy security means assured availability of energy at affordable prices with resilience against supply shocks. LPG security is a subset covering cooking gas access for households.
    2. Scale: Public sector oil marketing companies serve 33.14 crore active domestic LPG customers, growing at a compound annual growth rate of 7.6 per cent between 2015 and 2026.
    3. Consumption gap: LPG production was 4.3 million metric tonnes against consumption of 6.5 million metric tonnes in the first quarter of FY27, with the 2026-27 consumption estimate at 34,692 thousand metric tonnes.

    Key Facts about India’s LPG Sector

    1. Oil marketing companies: Indian Oil, Bharat Petroleum, and Hindustan Petroleum are the three public sector oil marketing companies distributing LPG.
    2. PPAC: The Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell tracks LPG consumption, customer base, and pricing data.
    3. Crisis production ramp up: At the peak of the crisis, oil marketing companies raised cumulative daily LPG production from 34,000 metric tonnes to 55,000 metric tonnes.
    4. Output jump: First quarter FY27 LPG production rose 35.73 per cent year on year to 4.26 million metric tonnes after refineries diverted propane and butane streams into the LPG pool.

    Government Initiatives for LPG and Energy Security

    1. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: Provides free LPG connections to women from below poverty line households to promote clean cooking.
    2. PAHAL (DBTL): Directly transfers LPG subsidy to beneficiary bank accounts to curb diversion.
    3. Strategic Petroleum Reserves: Underground crude storage to cushion supply disruptions.
    4. Ethanol Blending Programme: Reduces import dependence in the broader energy basket.
    5. Long term supply agreements: State refiner contracts diversifying LPG sourcing across geographies.

    Way Forward

    1. Boost domestic output: Maximise refinery LPG yield and invest in production capacity to narrow the import gap.
    2. Diversify suppliers: Spread sourcing across the Gulf, the United States, Australia, and others to avoid single supplier dependence.
    3. Expand strategic reserves: Build dedicated LPG storage to buffer sudden shocks.
    4. Hedge price and currency risk: Use financial instruments to manage commodity, dollar, and freight exposure.
    5. Secure alternate routes: Develop supply chains outside the Strait of Hormuz to reduce chokepoint vulnerability.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025] “Energy security constitutes the dominant kingpin of India’s foreign policy, and is linked with India’s overarching influence in Middle Eastern countries.” How would you integrate energy security with India’s foreign policy trajectories in the coming years?

    Linkage: The PYQ directly relates to energy security as a key driver of India’s foreign policy, especially in West Asia. India’s shift to US LPG highlights the need for supplier diversification, alternate routes and strategic autonomy in energy diplomacy.

  • As AI threat loomed, UPI players flagged rising security costs

    Why in News?

    UPI platforms have flagged rising cybersecurity costs, especially from AI-enabled fraud, renewing demands to allow Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) on UPI.

    What is MDR?

    • MDR: Fee paid by merchants to banks/payment providers for processing digital payments.
    • UPI: MDR is currently zero, so merchants pay no transaction fee.
    • Costs are borne by banks, payment apps and government reimbursements.

    Why are Security Costs Rising?

    • AI-enabled fraud can make sophisticated cyberattacks cheaper and easier.
    • Security accounts for 20%+ of UPI platform costs.
    • Security infrastructure costs around 10 to 20 paise per transaction.
    • Dependence on imported AI/cloud tools adds dollar and currency risks.
    • Rising transaction volumes keep security expenditure high.

    Why Allow MDR?

    • UPI infrastructure is not costless and someone must bear its cost.
    • Reduces dependence on uncertain government subsidies.
    • Provides dedicated funding for cybersecurity and system resilience.

    Concerns

    • Fees on small-value transactions could push users back to cash.
    • Higher costs may disproportionately affect price-sensitive consumers.
    • Poorly designed MDR could weaken UPI’s role as a public digital infrastructure.
    • Foreign AI security tools create strategic and currency dependence.

    UPI: Back2Basics

    • UPI: Real-time interbank payment system developed by NPCI.
    • Enables instant P2P and P2M payments.
    • NPCI: Umbrella organisation for India’s retail payment systems, established in 2008.
    • Key systems: UPI, RuPay, IMPS, BBPS and FASTag.
    • Regulated by RBI under the Payment and Settlement Systems Act, 2007.

    “[2026] Which one of the following statements about Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and Central Bank Digital Currency (Digital Rupee) is NOT correct?

    (a) UPI is a real-time payment system but Digital Rupee is akin to sovereign paper currency

    (b) In case of UPI, settlement for end users happens instantly; in case of Digital Rupee, wallet balance gets transferred to another wallet (no traditional settlement)

    (c) UPI transactions are recorded by banks and reflected in bank statements; in case of Digital Rupee, no data is captured in bank statements

    (d) In both the cases (UPI and Digital Rupee), the liability lies with the users and their respective banks

  • India’s first privately-built FFSC rocket engine signals a new dawn in space flight

    Why in the News

    Bengaluru-based Astrobase Space Technologies unveiled EVEREST, India’s first privately built 800 kN Full-Flow Staged Combustion (FFSC) LOX-Methane engine on 7 August 2026. India is now the fourth country after Russia, the US and China with FFSC technology.

    What is an FFSC Engine?

    1. About: An advanced liquid rocket engine architecture offering high thrust and efficiency.
    2. Full-flow: Fuel and oxidiser pass through separate pre-burners, driving turbopumps before entering the main chamber.
    3. Advantage: Almost all propellant contributes to thrust, improving efficiency and reusability.

    What is LOX-Methane?

    • LOX: Liquid Oxygen as oxidiser.
    • Methane: Fuel that burns relatively cleanly, reducing engine deposits and aiding faster refurbishment and turnaround.

    What is IN-SPACe?

    • Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre, an autonomous agency under the Department of Space.
    • Acts as a single-window agency to promote and authorise private space activities.
    • Astrobase received support through its Technology Adoption Fund.

    Why is EVEREST Significant?

    1. Technology: Makes India the 4th FFSC-capable nation.
    2. Reusability: Suitable for reusable launch vehicles with precise throttle control.
    3. Capacity: Could enable reusable systems carrying up to 30 tonnes to LEO.
    4. Manufacturing: Uses advanced manufacturing, including large-scale 3D printing.
    5. Timeline: Development began in 2024; integrated hot-fire tests are planned at Anantapur, with first flight targeted for December 2028.

    Global Comparison

    • Russia: Pioneer in FFSC technology.
    • USA: SpaceX’s Raptor is the only operational FFSC engine.
    • China: LandSpace has developed a commercial high-thrust FFSC engine.
    • India: EVEREST marks its entry into FFSC technology.

    Private Space Sector in India

    • 2020 reforms: Opened space activities to private players through IN-SPACe.
    • Indian Space Policy 2023: Enables greater private participation across the space value chain.
    • NSIL: Commercial arm of the Department of Space.
    • Firms such as Skyroot Aerospace and Agnikul Cosmos are developing indigenous launch technologies.

    “[2026] Consider the following statements about involvement of private entities in India’s space programme:

    1. IN-SPACe is an autonomous agency formed to facilitate participation of private entities.

    2. Agnikul Cosmos launched the world’s first flight using 3D-printed rocket engine.

    3. Skyroot Aerospace has developed liquid fuel for GSLV.

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 2 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • For energy security, the way forward is not public or private, but both

    Why in the News

    India’s ethanol blending has reached 20%, ahead of the 2030 target. It has displaced 310 lakh tonnes of imported crude, saved over ₹1.90 lakh crore in foreign exchange and transferred over ₹1.6 lakh crore to farmers.

    What is the Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme?

    • EBP: Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme blends ethanol, mainly produced from sugarcane and grains, with petrol.
    • E20: 20% ethanol blending has been achieved ahead of schedule.
    • Benefits: Reduces crude imports, supports farmers and lowers emissions.

    What are Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR)?

    • SPR: Strategic Petroleum Reserves are underground crude oil storage facilities used as an insurance against supply disruptions.
    • They provide a temporary buffer and must eventually be replenished.

    What has Ethanol Blending Achieved?

    • 20% blending achieved.
    • 310 lakh tonnes of crude imports displaced.
    • ₹1.90 lakh crore+ foreign exchange saved.
    • ₹1.6 lakh crore+ transferred to farmers.
    • 930 lakh tonnes+ CO₂ emissions avoided.

    Why Both Public and Private Players?

    • ONGC: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, a major state-owned upstream producer.
    • OIL: Oil India Limited, another major state-owned upstream producer.
    • Public sector: Provides strategic control and supports national energy security.
    • Private sector: Brings capital, technology and efficiency into exploration, production and storage.
    • Balanced approach: India needs both strategic public capacity and competitive private participation.

    How Do Reserves and Domestic Production Complement Each Other?

    • SPR: Protects against sudden supply shocks.
    • Domestic production: Reduces imports over the life of an oil field.
    • Overseas stocks: Long-term suppliers could maintain crude stocks earmarked for India.
    • Exploration: Opening more offshore areas can expand domestic resources.

    Energy Security in India

    • Energy security means reliable and affordable energy supply with resilience against disruptions.
    • Four pillars:
      • Domestic production
      • Strategic reserves
      • Import diversification
      • Alternative fuels

      India’s high crude import dependence exposes it to global price shocks and disruptions in chokepoints such as the Strait of Hormuz and Bab el-Mandeb.

      Key Government Initiatives

      • EBP: Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme.
      • NBP: National Policy on Biofuels, 2018.
      • PM JI-VAN: Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana, promoting 2G (second-generation) ethanol from agricultural residues.
      • SATAT: Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation, promoting compressed biogas.
      • SPR Programme: Strategic Petroleum Reserves Programme for crude oil security.

      [2025] Consider the following statements:

      Statement I: Of the two major ethanol producers in the world, i.e., Brazil and the United States of America, the former produces more ethanol than the latter.

      Statement II: Unlike in the United States of America, where corn is the principal feedstock for ethanol production, sugarcane is the principal feedstock for ethanol production in Brazil.

      Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

      (a) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II is the correct explanation for Statement I

      (b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II is not the correct explanation for Statement I

      (c) Statement I is correct but Statement II is incorrect

      (d) Statement I is incorrect but Statement II is correct