From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jiadhal River, Brahmaputra and its tributaries
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Climate Change is disrupting Jiadhal River’s (Dhemaji district, Assam) tranquil flow, leading to unprecedented shifts in its course and causing upheaval for residents.
About Jiadhal River:
It flows through the districts of Darrang, Udalguri, and Baksa in the northeastern state of Assam.
It is also known Kumotiya River after flowing from Gogamukh.
Origin: From the Hills of Bhutan, flows through the Assam Himalayas before meandering through the plains of Assam. It is formed by the confluence of several smaller streams.
Major tributaries:Kolong River and the Daokao River.
It eventually joins the Brahmaputra River near the town of Nalbari.
It is known as the ‘Sorrow of Dhemaji’ for the heavy damage caused by annual floods and erosion.
Factors leading to changes in the Jiadhal River’s Course
Erosion: Flowing water gradually wears away the riverbanks and bed, causing the river to meander and change course.
Sediment deposition: Accumulation of sediment can create new channels or alter the flow pattern of the river.
Human activities: Dams, channelization, urbanization, deforestation, and mining can disrupt natural river processes, leading to changes in flow and morphology.
Climate change: Changes in precipitation, temperature, and glacier melt affect river flow patterns and behavior.
Tectonic activity: Uplift, subsidence, and faulting influence river topography and drainage patterns, leading to adjustments in course and behavior.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements:
1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim.
2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta.
3. River Teesta falls into Bay of Bengal at the border of India and Bangladesh.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Easement Rights, Indian Easements Act, 1882
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Supreme Court observed that a claimant of an Easementary Right cannot claim an Easement by necessity if there exists an alternative way to access the property owned by the claimant, known as the ‘Dominant Heritage‘.
The court referred to Section 13 of the Indian Easements Act, of 1882, which deals with easementary rights by necessity.
What is Easement Right?
An Easement is a legal right to use someone else’s property for a specific purpose without possessing it.
Essentially, it’s a permission or privilege granted by the owner of one property (the servient land) to someone else (the dominant land) to use the servient land in a particular way.
Legal backing for Easement Rights
Section 13 of the Indian Easements Act, 1882, serves as the cornerstone in adjudicating easementary rights disputes.
It mandates that such rights can only be claimed if no alternative access to the Dominant Heritage exists, providing clarity in legal proceedings.
Understanding terms like ‘Dominant Heritage’ (represents the property for enjoyment) and ‘Servient Heritage‘ (property over which rights are sought) is crucial in comprehending easementary rights disputes.
Features of the Indian Easements Act, 1882:
Definition of Easements: The law defines what an easement is and the different types, like rights of way (to pass through someone’s land), rights to light and air, and rights to use water.
Acquisition of Easements: It explains how easements can be created. For example, by agreement between the parties or through long-time use.
Rights and Liabilities: It outlines the rights and responsibilities of both the person who has the easement (the beneficiary) and the person who owns the land over which the easement exists (the servient owner). For instance, the beneficiary must not do anything to increase the burden of the easement, and the servient owner must not obstruct the use of the easement.
Termination of Easements: It describes the circumstances under which an easement can come to an end. For example, if the purpose for which the easement was created ceases to exist, or if the beneficiary expressly gives up their right.
Customary Easements: It recognizes certain easements that arise due to local customs or traditions.
Back2Basics:Fundamental Rights vs. Legal Rights
Fundamental Rights
Legal Rights
Source
Enshrined in the Indian Constitution, specifically Part III
Derived from various sources such as Legislation, contracts, Judicial decisions, etc.
Enforcement
Directly enforceable against the state through constitutional remedies like writ petitions under Article 32
Enforceable through the legal system, but may vary in enforceability depending on the nature of the right and available legal mechanisms
Scope
Typically includes rights essential for the Protection of Individual Liberty, Equality, and dignity, such as the Right to Equality, Freedom of Speech, Right to Life and Personal Liberty, etc.
Encompasses a wide range of rights recognized by law, including Property Rights, Contractual Rights, Tort Rights, Family Law Rights, Labor Rights, Consumer Rights, etc.
Nature
Paramount and inviolable, subject to limited exceptions as prescribed by the Constitution
Subject to limitations or restrictions imposed by law, and may be subject to changes or modifications through Legislative action or Judicial Interpretation
Examples
Right to Equality, Right to Freedom of Speech, Right to Life and Personal Liberty, etc.
Right to Property, Right to Contract, Right to sue for damages, Right to Vote, etc.
PYQ:
[2018] What is the position of Right to Property in India?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: The reason behind the Urbanisation is not a liberating force for Dalits
Why in the News?
The Indian cities have failed with the aspirations and expectations of the Dalit liberation movement in urbanization.
View of Ambedkar and Jyotirao Phule on Urbanisation:
Urbanization as an Opportunity for Dalit Liberation: Both Ambedkar and Jyotirao Phule saw urbanization as an opportunity for Dalit liberation. They believed that the systems of caste oppression that were prevalent in Indian villages would weaken in cities.
City Life as Liberating and Liberal: Phule admired city life for its liberal atmosphere and the opportunity it provided him to earn a living. Similarly, Ambedkar saw cities as places where one could become anonymous, breaking free from the constraints of caste-based identities.
Transition from Caste to Class: Cities offered the potential for individuals to transition from a caste-based order to a class-based order. In cities, one’s status would be determined more by their accumulation of resources or capital rather than their caste background.
Why Urbanisation is not a liberating force for Dalits?
Extension of Caste in City: The logic of purity-pollution extends to the broader urban environment, where Dalits carry the stigma of their ghettoized identity into public spaces. This perpetuates the association of Dalit identity with impurity and reinforces caste-based discrimination.
Meat as impure by the State: Governments impose Brahminical regulations on public spaces, reinforcing the perception of meat as impure. For example, it includes Regulations on meat shops and bans on meat-based street food in certain areas, often justified by citing religious sentiments.
Secular and Religious Spaces: The state’s regulations to maintain purity in both secular and religious public spaces, even extending to what pedestrians can visually encounter.
Poor Sanitation: A large-scale study also found that public services and access to Municipal Infrastructure such as clean drinking water are the worst in Dalit and Muslim ghettos
Issue of Sacrifice Zone: Research in sacrifice zones regions marked for severe environmental pollution such as landfills shows that such areas are overwhelmingly inhabited by Dalits and Muslims.
Statistics: A recent report by the ‘Housing and Land Rights Network’ on forced evictions in India also shows that Dalits and Muslims are the most impacted by slum demolition drives.
Suggestive Measures:
Community Empowerment: Empower Dalit and Muslim communities through grassroots initiatives, community organizations, and advocacy groups.
Awareness and Sensitization: Conduct awareness campaigns and sensitization programs aimed at challenging caste-based stereotypes and prejudices in urban society.
Infrastructure Development: Prioritize investment in infrastructure development in Dalit and Muslim ghettos to improve access to basic amenities such as clean water, sanitation, healthcare, and education.
Conclusion: Urbanization hasn’t fulfilled Dalit liberation hopes. Ambedkar and Phule envisioned cities as liberating, but caste persists. Measures include community empowerment, awareness campaigns, and infrastructure development to combat discrimination and improve living conditions.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Reasons behind the Fertility levels dropping below one in many Asian nations
Why in the News?
Many countries in East and Southeast Asia are in the middle of a population crisis, with fewer births every year and record-low fertility rates.
In March this year, several hospitals in China stopped offering newborn delivery services due to declining demand.
What is TFR?
Total Fertility Rate is a measure used in demography to represent the average number of children that would be born to a woman over her lifetime.
TFR of Asian countries and India and Comparison with others:
Reasons behind the Fertility levels dropping below one in many Asian nations:
Family Planning Measures: Countries like South Korea and Singapore have implemented stringent family planning policies, limiting the number of children couples are encouraged to have. For example, South Korea’s slogan in the 1980s, “Even two children per family are too many for our crowded country,” reflects the emphasis on controlling population growth.
Career Opportunities for Women: With more opportunities for women to pursue careers, there has been a shift in priorities away from having children.
Declining Marriage Rates: Dropping marriage rates contribute to lower fertility rates, as marriage traditionally correlates with childbearing. As fewer people get married or delay marriage, the window for childbearing narrows.
Cost of Raising Children: The rising cost of raising a child is cited as a deterrent to having larger families. Financial considerations such as education, healthcare, and housing expenses may dissuade couples from having more children.
Ideal fertility rate: The ideal fertility rate for a population to remain stable, assuming no immigration or emigration, is 2.1 children per woman. This rate is known as the replacement rate, and it ensures that each generation will replace itself.
Suggestive Measures to maintain an ideal Fertility Rate:
Supporting Work-Life Balance: Implement policies that support work-life balance, such as flexible work schedules, parental leave, and affordable childcare, to encourage individuals to have children while pursuing their careers.
Financial Incentives: Offer financial incentives or subsidies for families to alleviate the financial burden of raising children, making it more feasible for individuals to start families.
Education and Awareness: Provide education and awareness programs on the benefits of having children at a younger age and the importance of family planning to help individuals make informed decisions about their fertility.
Healthcare Support: Improve healthcare services related to fertility, pregnancy, and childbirth to ensure a safe and supportive environment for individuals considering starting a family.
Conclusion: Declining fertility rates in Asian nations prompt a population crisis due to stringent family planning, women’s career opportunities, declining marriage rates, and high child-raising costs. Need to take measures include work-life balance policies, financial incentives, education, and healthcare improvements to maintain an ideal fertility rate.
Mains PYQ
Q Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the mains cause of population increase in India.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Iran and Israel
Mains level: Middle East countries; Iran and Israel
Why in the news?
Iran has said that its April 12 attacks on Israel were in response to Israeli war jets targeting an Iranian consulate in Syria earlier this month, leading to the death of its senior military commanders.
Context:
The Iran-Israel relationship has not always been as fraught as it is today. Iran was one of the first countries in the region to recognise Israel after its formation in 1948. It was only after 1979 that their diplomatic ties ended.
Iran–Israel Relations: This can be studied through four major phases:
Ambivalent (1947-1953);
Friendly (1953-1979);
Worsening (1979-1990);
Open Hostility (1991-present);
1953 to 1979 Iran–Israel Relations:
From 1953 to 1979, during the rule of the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran, the relationship between Iran and Israel was relatively friendly.
Iran recognized Israel as a sovereign state in 1950, making it the second Muslim-majority country to do so after Turkey.
Despite occasional tensions, Iran and Israel engaged in significant economic, political, and military cooperation during this period. This cooperation extended to various sectors and included joint projects.
Iran supported Israel during conflicts with Arab nations, indicating a level of alignment in their geopolitical interests.
One notable joint project between Iran and Israel was the construction of the Trans-Israel oil pipeline, showcasing the depth of their cooperation, particularly in the economic sphere.
Post 1979 Iran–Israel Relations:
After the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran became a religious state, with a significant shift in its foreign policy and worldview.
Iran, under the new regime, viewed Israel as an occupier of Palestinian land and referred to it as “Little Satan.” This represented a significant departure from the previous regime’s stance.
Iran, under Ayatollah Khomeini, also labeled the United States as the “Great Satan” and saw both Israel and the US as interfering in the region’s affairs.
Iran sought to expand its influence in the region, challenging traditional powers such as Saudi Arabia and Israel, both of which were US allies.
Initially at odds with pan-Arabism championed by leaders like Gamal Abdel Nasser, Iran’s relations with Arab countries, such as Egypt, warmed after Nasser died in 1970.
The signing of an accord between Iran and Iraq in 1975, which included Iran’s agreement to cease support for Kurdish-Iraqi separatists, led to a temporary easing of hostility between the two nations.
These shifts in Iran’s foreign policy and its improved relations with neighboring countries, as well as Iraq, led to a decrease in Israel’s strategic importance to Iran.
India’s Stance:
India’s Neutral Stance: India has adopted a neutral stance on the conflict between Iran and Israel, emphasizing the importance of peace and stability in the region.
Strategic Partnership with Israel: Despite its neutral stance, India maintains a strategic partnership with Israel, characterized by significant military and economic ties, including a substantial trade volume of around $7.5 billion.
Cultural and Linguistic Ties with Iran: India also has cultural and linguistic ties with Iran, along with strategic economic interests, such as the Chabahar port project, which connects India to Central Asia through Iran.
Focus on Citizen Safety: India’s primary focus amidst the escalating conflict is ensuring the safety and well-being of its citizens, with approximately 10,000 Indian nationals in Iran and an additional 18,000 in Israel.
Conclusion: Iran-Israel ties, once friendly, soured post-1979 due to Iran’s religious revolution. India maintains neutrality, balancing strategic partnerships with both nations while prioritizing citizen safety amid escalating tensions.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jim Corbett National Park
Mains level: Key points related the judgment
Why in the news?
In its March ruling, the Supreme Court highlighted the corrupt collaboration between politicians, forest officials, and local contractors that led to the illegal felling of 6,000 trees in the Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand.
Key points related the judgment
Shift from Anthropocentrism to Eco-centrism: The Supreme Court emphasized the need for an eco-centric approach rather than anthropocentrism in ecotourism management.
Ban on Tiger Safaris in Core Areas: : The court disagreed with the 2019 guidelines of the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) permitting tiger safaris on the lines of a zoo in national parks, The court directed the banning of tiger safaris in core areas of national parks, aiming to minimize environmental damage and disturbance to wildlife habitats.
Committee Formation for Feasibility Study: A committee was constituted to explore the feasibility of permitting tiger safaris in peripheral areas of national parks across India, indicating a cautious approach towards balancing tourism with conservation goals.
What the court missed
Absence of Well-Defined Methodology: The court’s decision to recover the cost of restoration from errant individuals and officers lacks a well-defined methodology, making it challenging to accurately assess the damage done to the green cover of Jim Corbett.
Suggestive measures
Need for Ecosystem Services-Based Valuation: In light of growing degradation of biodiversity hotspots and support for revenue-generating eco-tourism, there is a need for a valuation method based on ecosystem services, which includes benefits like food, water, and climate regulation.
Precedent on Ecosystem Services: The court could have set a precedent by prioritizing ecosystem services over eco-tourism or highlighting the need for a precise law and policy regarding ecosystem services, which play a crucial role in environmental conservation and sustainable development.
Reference to International Court of Justice (ICJ) Ruling: The reasoning provided by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in Costa Rica v. Nicaragua (2018) regarding the compensability of damage to the environment could have been used to better understand methodologies for evaluating environmental damage and loss of ecosystem services
Conclusion
The Supreme Court’s ruling on Jim Corbett underscores a shift towards eco-centric ecotourism management, banning tiger safaris in core areas. However, the absence of a clear restoration methodology and the need for ecosystem services-based valuation remain unaddressed, suggesting room for improvement.
Mains PYQ
Q How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act,2002 helpful in conservation of flora and fauna? (UPSC IAS/2018)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Geroscience, DNA Methylation
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Dr. Daniel Belsky from Columbia University introduced the concept of “Geroscience” and develops a blood test, termed “gerozyme,” to measure aging pace by studying DNA methylation.
Various research groups explore drugs like Metformin and Rapamycin to target aging and enhance immunity in the elderly.
What is Geroscience?
Geroscience refers to the interdisciplinary field focused on understanding the biological mechanisms of ageing and age-related diseases.
It involves studying various factors, including DNA methylation, enzyme activity (such as the gerozyme), socio-economic influences, and lifestyle interventions like nutrition, exercise, and music therapy.
It aims to develop strategies, such as drug interventions targeting specific ageing-related processes, to promote healthy ageing and combat age-related conditions like dementia.
What is DNA Methylation?
DNA Methylation is a process in which methyl groups (CH3) are added to the DNA molecule.
This modification typically occurs at cytosine bases within the DNA sequence, often in the context of CpG dinucleotides (where cytosine is followed by guanine).
DNA methylation plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression and maintaining genome stability.
It can affect various cellular processes, including embryonic development, X-chromosome inactivation, genomic imprinting, and silencing of repetitive DNA elements.
Aberrant DNA methylation patterns have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders.
Drug Interventions in Geroscience
Metformin and TORC1 inhibitors show promise in targeting aging and improving immune response in seniors.
Research proposes rapamycin’s potential in extending longevity and combating age-related diseases.
Impact of Socio-Economic Factors in Ageing
Dr. Belsky’s research reveals the influence of socioeconomic status on DNA methylation levels, highlighting the role of disadvantage in ageing.
Columbia Aging Centre emphasizes the role of a balanced diet in supporting brain health and reducing inflammation.
Healthline.com advocates for proteins, healthy fats, and antioxidant-rich foods to promote healthy ageing, crucial for India’s ageing population.
PYQ:
[2011] At present, scientists can determine the arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does this knowledge benefit us?
It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock.
It is possible to understand the causes of all human diseases.
It is possible to develop disease-resistant animal breeds.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lachit Borphukan, Ahom Kingdom, Treaty of Yandaboo
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Statue of Valour, depicting Ahom general Lachit Borphukan, has become a significant landmark in Meleng-Hollongapar, Jorhat in Assam.
The 125-foot statue commemorates Lachit Borphukan’s leadership in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
Establishment: Founded in 1228 in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam by Chaolung Sukapha.
Duration: Retained sovereignty for 600 years until annexed by British India in 1826 (Treaty of Yandaboo).
Resistance: Despite facing the Mughal Empire’s power, the Ahom Kingdom remained unconquered.
Political Structure: Established a new state by supressing the older system of bhuiyans (landlords).
Labor System: Relied on forced labor known as paiks for state functions.
Social Organization: Society divided into clans or khels, embracing Hinduism and Assamese language alongside tribal beliefs.
Cultural Patronage: Supported poets, scholars, and theater; translated Sanskrit texts into local language; composed historical chronicles called buranjis.
Military Strategy: King served as supreme commander; core army comprised of paiks; mastered guerrilla warfare and surprise attacks.
Key Forts: Included Chamdhara, Saraighat, and Simlagarh, strategically crucial for defense.
River Expertise: Mastered construction of boat bridges on the Brahmaputra River.
Legacy: Ahom Kingdom’s military prowess, cultural patronage, and political organization left a lasting impact on Assam’s history.
Who wasLachit Borphukan?
Lachit Borphukan was a legendary military commander from the northeastern region of India, specifically from the state of Assam. Here are some facts related to him:
Description
Timeline
1622-1672
Dynasty
Ahom Dynasty
Mughal Threat
Faced the Mughal Empire’s expansion into Assam
Battle of Saraighat
Led Ahom forces to victory against the Mughals in 1671;
Defended Assam against the Aurangzeb’s forces led by Ram Singh.
Leadership
Known for strategic brilliance and guerrilla tactics
Legacy
Revered as a symbol of Assamese pride and resistance
Recognition
INS Lachit: Indian Navy’s guided-missile destroyer named in honor;
Lachit Divas: Celebrated annually on November 24th in Assam;
Lachit Borphukan Medal: Awarded to the best cadet from the National Defence. Academy (NDA, Pune).
PYQ:
[2015] Who among the following founded a new city on the south bank of a tributary to river Krishna and undertook to rule his new kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all the land south of the river Krishna was supposed to belong?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mahad (Chavdar Lake) Satyagraha, Annihilation of Caste etc.
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Mahad Satyagraha is hailed as the foundational event of the Dalit movement, marking the community’s collective rejection of the caste system and assertion of human rights.
About Mahad Satyagraha
The Mahad Satyagraha, also known as Chavdar Tale (Lake) Satyagraha, was led by B. R. Ambedkar on 20 March 1927 in Mahad, Raigad District of Maharashtra.
Its aim was to assert the right of untouchables to use waterfrom a public tank.
Background:
Untouchables (Dalits) were segregated in Indian society and banned from using public water bodiesand roads used by other Hindu castes.
In August 1923, the Bombay Legislative Council passed a resolution allowing depressed classes to use government-maintained places, but it faced opposition from savarna Hindus.
In January 1924, Mahad passedaresolution in its municipal council to enforce the act but failed to implement it due to protests.
Satyagraha:
In 1927, Ambedkar launched a satyagraha to assert untouchables’ rights to use water in public places.
Mahad was chosen for the event due to its support from ‘caste Hindus’.
Surendranath Tipnis, president of the Mahad municipality, invited Ambedkar to hold a meeting there.
Ambedkar drank water from the tank, followed by thousands of untouchables.
He encouraged Dalit women to abandon customs of untouchability and wear saris like high-caste women, which they embraced.
A riot erupted over rumors of Ambedkar planning to enter a Hindu temple, and the tank was purified with cow-urine and cow-dung.
Ambedkar planned a second conferencein Mahad in December 1927 but faced legal obstacles due to a case filed by caste Hindus.
On 25 December 1937, the Bombay High Court ruled that untouchables have the right to use water from the tank.
Legacy:
On 19 March 1940, Ambedkar arranged a rally in Mahad to commemorate the Satyagraha as “Empowerment Day.”
Back2Basics: Key Initiatives and Movements Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Initiative
Location
Objective
Temple Entry Movement (1920s-1930s)
Various Locations
Advocating for the right of Dalits to enter Hindu temples.
Mahad Satyagraha (Chavdar Tale Satyagraha)
Mahad, Maharashtra
Asserting the rights of untouchables to use water from a public tank.
Kalaram Mandir Movement (1930)
Nashik, Maharashtra
Demanding temple entry rights for Dalits at the Kalaram Mandir.
Annihilation of Caste (1936)
–
Publication of “Annihilation of Caste,” advocating for the abolition of the caste system.
Formation of Independent Dalit Political Party (Independent Labour Party) (1936)
–
Addressing the political concerns and aspirations of Dalits.
Push for Separate Electorate by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1932)
India
Advocating for separate electorates for Dalits to ensure their political representation and empowerment.
Legal Advocacy (1940s-1950s)
–
Drafting of the Hindu Code Bills, contribution to the framing of the Indian Constitution.
Conversion to Buddhism (1956)
Nagpur, Maharashtra
Symbolizing a rejection of the caste system through mass conversion ceremony to Buddhism.
PYQ:
[2018] Which one of the following is a very significant aspect of the Champaran Satyagraha?
(a) Active all-India participation of lawyers, students and women in the National Movement
(b) Active involvement of Dalit and Tribal communities of India in the National Movement
(c) Joining of peasant unrest to India’s National Movement
(d) Drastic decrease in the cultivation of plantation crops and commercial crops
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Science Based Targets Initiative (SBTi)
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The recent gathering of major funders and promoters of the carbon offsets market in London raised concerns about the role of the Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) in limiting the market’s growth.
SBTi’s stringent criteria for net-zero plans have made it a gold standard in emissions accountability, but some argue it hinders the potential of carbon offsets in combating climate change.
What is Carbon Offset?
A carbon offset broadly refers to a reduction in GHG emissions – or an increase in carbon storage (e.g., through land restoration or the planting of trees) – that is used to compensate for emissions that occur elsewhere.
A carbon offset credit is a transferrable instrument certified by governments or independent certification bodies to represent an emission reduction of one metric tonne of CO2, or an equivalent amount of other GHGs.
What is Science Based Targets Initiative (SBTi)?
The SBTi is a collaborative effort spearheaded by four international organizations:
Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP),
United Nations Global Compact (UNGC),
World Resources Institute (WRI), and
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
The SBTi focuses on assisting companies in setting ambitious and scientifically sound greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets.
Details
Purpose
To drive ambitious corporate action on climate change by providing a framework for setting science-based targets aligned with the Paris Agreement goals.
Launch Year
2015
Founding Organizations
Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP),
United Nations Global Compact (UNGC),
World Resources Institute (WRI), and
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
Methodologies
SBTi offers guidelines and methodologies for companies to set targets that are consistent with the latest climate science and contribute to limiting global warming.
Global Reach
Engages with companies worldwide, collaborating with partners across sectors, regions, and industries to promote adoption of science-based targets.
Recognition
Recognized as a leading platform for corporate climate action;
Companies comply to set science-based targets and reduce greenhouse gas emissions;
Updates and refines its methodologies and verification processes to reflect advances in climate science and best practices in emissions reduction.
PYQ:
[2021] The ‘Common Carbon Metric’, Supported by UNEP, had been developed for:
(a) Assessing the carbon footprint of building operations around the world.
(b) Enabling commercial farming entities around the world to enter carbon emission trading.
(c) Enabling governments to assess the overall carbon footprint caused by their countries.
(d) Assessing the overall carbon footprint caused by the use of fossil fuels by the world in a unit time.
Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Index of Industrial Production (IIP), Core Industries etc.
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
India’s Index of Industrial Production (IIP) increased by 5.7% in February, up from 3.8% in January, according to data from the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
What is Index of Industrial Production (IIP)?
IIP as it is commonly called is an index that tracks overall manufacturing activity in different sectors of an economy.
It is currently calculated using 2011-2012 as the base year.
It is compiled and published by Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) every month.
CSO operates under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
Components of IIP:
Three broad sectors in IIP:
Manufacturing (77.6%),
Mining (14.4%)
Electricity (8%).
Electricity, crude oil, coal, cement, steel, refinery products, natural gas, and fertilizers are the eight core industries that comprise about 40 per cent of the weight of items included in the IIP.
Basket of products:
There are 6 sub-categories:
Primary Goods (consisting of mining, electricity, fuels and fertilisers)
The factory production data (IIP) is used by various government agencies such as the Ministry of Finance, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), private firms and analysts, among others for analytical purposes.
The data is also used to compile the Gross Value Added (GVA) of the manufacturing sector in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on a quarterly basis.
IIP base year change:
The base year was changed to 2011-12 from 2004-05 in the year 2017.
The earlier base years were 1937, 1946, 1951, 1956, 1960, 1970, 1980-81, 1993-94 and 2004-05.
What are the Core Industries in India?
The main or the key industries constitute the core sectors of an economy.
In India, there are eight sectors that are considered the core sectors.
They are electricity, steel, refinery products, crude oil, coal, cement, natural gas and fertilizers.
About Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI)
The monthly Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI) is a production volume index.
ICI measures collective and individual performance of production in selected eight core industries: Coal (10%), Crude Oil (8.98%), Natural Gas (6.88%), Refinery Products (28.04%), Fertilizers (2.63%), Steel (17.92%), Cement (5.37%), and Electricity (20.18%).
Prior to the 2004-05 series six core industries namely Coal, Cement, Finished Steel, Electricity, Crude petroleum and Refinery products constituted the index basket.
Two more industries i.e. Fertilizer and Natural Gas were added to the index basket in 2004-05 series. The ICI series with base 2011-12 will continue to have eight core industries.
Components covered in these eight industries for compilation of index are as follows:
Coal – Coal Production excluding Coking coal.
Crude Oil – Total Crude Oil Production.
Natural Gas – Total Natural Gas Production.
Refinery Products – Total Refinery Production (in terms of Crude Throughput).
Steel – Production of Alloy and Non-Alloy Steel only.
Cement – Production of Large Plants and Mini Plants.
Electricity – Actual Electricity Generation of Thermal, Nuclear, Hydro, imports from Bhutan.
How is IIP different from ICI?
IIP is compiled and published monthly by the National Statistics Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation six weeks after the reference month ends.
However, ICI is compiled and released by Office of the Economic Adviser (OEA), Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion (DIPP), and Ministry of Commerce & Industry.
The Eight Core Industriescomprise nearly 40.27% of the weight of items included in the Index of Industrial Production (IIP). These are Electricity, steel, refinery products, crude oil, coal, cement, natural gas and fertilisers.
PYQ:
[2015] In the Index of Eight Core Industries, which one of the following is given the highest weight?
On April 13, 1919, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered British troops to open fire on a peaceful gathering in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, leaving a deep scar on India’s collective memory.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
Background: Protesting the contentious Rowlatt Act
The act officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919 was passed in 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council.
It had authorized the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities.
It also authorized the government to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial.
It empowered the police to search a place without a warrant. It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press.
The primary intention of colonial govt. was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country.
The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite Revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country.
The day
The massacre took place on 13 April 1919 when troops of the British Indian Army (Gurkha and Sikh infantry regiments) under the command of Col. Reginald Dyer fired rifles into a crowd of Indians.
The civilians had assembled for a peaceful protest to condemn the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
Dyer without warningordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well.
The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes which resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people.
Aftermath
In protest against the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood.
Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa.
Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre.
The heroic treatment of Dyer’s heinous act again set a benchmark of colonial arrogance.
Hunter Commission for Inquiry
In October 1919 the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, ordered the formation of a committee of inquiry into the events in Punjab.
Referred to as the Disorders Inquiry Committee, it was later more widely known as the Hunter Commission (Not to be confused with Hunter Education Commission).
The commission inquiry was concluded without any significant conclusion.
Still, there are long-standing demands in India that Britain should apologize for the massacre.
PYQ:
[2012] The Rowlatt Act aimed at:
(a) Compulsory economic support to war efforts
(b) Imprisonment without trial and summary procedures for trial
(c) Suppression of the Khilafat Movement
(d) Imposition of restrictions on freedom of the press
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Blurred lines between "rescue" and "capture"
Why in the news?
The human-animal conflict in India is a significant issue, with several lives lost and property damage due to the increasing interactions between humans and wildlife
Difference between between wildlife ‘capture’ and ‘rescue’
Capture: It refers to the act of taking wild animals into custody, often due to conflicts with humans, such as when an animal poses a threat to human safety or property. This may involve trapping, sedating, or physically restraining the animal. The primary goal of capture is to ensure human safety and prevent further damage. Captured animals may be relocated, rehabilitated, or, in some cases, euthanized, depending on the situation and the animal’s condition.
Rescue: It refers to the act of providing assistance to wild animals in distress, such as those injured, orphaned, or trapped in a dangerous situation. The primary goal of rescue is to help the animal recover and, if possible, return it to the wild. Rescue efforts may involve medical treatment, rehabilitation, and release back into the wild.
Blurred lines between “rescue” and “capture”
Guidelines vs. Reality: Despite government guidelines discouraging capture without considering preventative measures, in practice, animals are often captured hastily rather than adopting non-invasive approaches.
Case of Elephant “Rescue”: An elephant was captured under the pretext of rescue from a coffee plantation but was subsequently released 200 km away in an unfamiliar landscape, leading to further complications and ultimately its death.
Unintended Consequences: The attempt to “rescue” the elephant resulted in its straying into a neighboring state, highlighting the unintended consequences and potential risks associated with such actions.
Case of Leopard “Rescue”: Similarly, a leopard was “rescued” after being sighted in an agricultural field, but it died shortly after for unknown reasons, raising questions about the efficacy and ethics of such operations.
Issues related to rescue of snakes
High Frequency of Interactions: Interactions with snakes are more frequent than with other wild animals, resulting in higher incidences of misguided rescue attempts.
Failure to Distinguish Between Actions: There’s a lack of distinction between capture, removal, and rescue when managing conflicts with snakes, leading to poor handling and unnecessary removal from habitats under the guise of rescue operations.
Issues with Relocation: Relocated snakes have poor survival prospects and relocation doesn’t effectively resolve conflict, potentially increasing future conflict occurrences.
Harmful Effects of “Rescue” Operations: Such operations can cause physical trauma, injuries, and stress to animals, reducing their post-release survival chances.
Suggestive measures
Education and Training: Provide comprehensive training to wildlife rescuers on species-specific rescue techniques and emphasize the importance of non-invasive approaches.
Habitat Restoration: Focus on habitat conservation and restoration to reduce human-snake conflicts and provide natural habitats for snakes.
Research and Monitoring: Conduct research to understand snake behavior and ecology better, enabling more informed rescue and relocation decisions.
Collaboration: Foster collaboration between wildlife authorities, conservation organizations, and local communities to develop effective strategies for managing human-snake conflicts sustainably.
Conclusion
Enhanced training, habitat restoration, research, and collaboration are vital for navigating the blurry lines between wildlife “capture” and “rescue,” ensuring humane and effective management of human-animal conflicts in India.
Mains question for practice
Q Discuss the blurred lines between wildlife “capture” and “rescue” in India, highlighting issues and proposing measures for effective human-animal conflict management.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA)
Mains level: he trade deficit between India and the ASEAN region is primarily due to the following reasons
Why in the news?
The review aims to address concerns such as the inverted duty structure, which puts local manufacturers at a disadvantage.
Trade deficit issue with ASEAN
High trade deficit: The trade deficit between India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has been a significant issue, with the deficit widening to USD 43.57 billion in the last fiscal from USD 25.76 billion in 2021-22 and just USD 5 billion in 2010-11
Review AITIGA:This has led to a review of the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA) by 2025, aiming to address concerns about trade barriers, abuse of the agreement, and the growing trade gap between India and the ASEAN region
ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA)
The ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA) is a trade agreement between the ten member states of ASEAN and India, signed in 2009 and implemented in 2010. The agreement aims to establish a free trade area between the parties, covering trade in physical goods and products, and progressively eliminating duties on 76.4 percent of goods.
The trade deficit between India and the ASEAN region is primarily due to the following reasons:
Tariff disparities: India’s tariffs were much higher than partner countries, leading to a significant reduction in tariffs for partner countries, which in turn caused India’s imports to grow faster than exports. This imbalance has been widening since 2010-11, the year India entered into an agreement with ASEAN
Non-tariff barriers and regulations: India’s exports to ASEAN have been affected due to non-reciprocity in FTA concessions, non-tariff barriers, import regulations, and quotas. These factors have hindered India’s ability to fully benefit from the FTA
Routing of goods from third countries: There have been concerns about the routing of goods from third countries, such as China, to ASEAN countries with minimum value addition and then being imported into India, misusing the India-ASEAN FTA. This practice has contributed to the growing trade deficit
Limited market access for Indian products: India’s exports of products such as textile clothing, footwear, food products, and minerals don’t have a significant place in ASEAN imports, while there is a higher dependence on products such as vegetables, fuels, chemicals, and metals from ASEAN, which are essential commodities
Conclusion
India’s review of the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement aims to tackle the widening trade deficit by addressing tariff disparities, non-tariff barriers, and the misuse of the agreement, crucial steps toward fostering fair and balanced trade relations.
Mains question for practice
Q Discuss the factors contributing to high deficit between India and ASEAN.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2023
Mains level: Key findings of Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2023
PYQ Relevance:
Mains:
Q National Education Policy 2020 isin conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement.(UPSC IAS/2020)
Q The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country. Discuss.(UPSC IAS/2015)
Mentore comment: The release of the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2023 in mid-January has once again drawn significant attention, following a tradition dating back to 2005, with exceptions during the COVID-19 years. Among the multitude of insights provided by the report, particular focus has been placed on the foundational skills of 14-18 year olds, which has garnered headlines. While the learning outcomes data raises concerns, it is imperative for practitioners and policymakers to delve deeper into the data to extract actionable insights aimed at enhancing education and overall outcomes for India’s adolescents and youth.
Why in the news?
The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2023 was released in mid-January this year.
Foundational learning trajectories as per ASER 2023 Beyond Basics survey
District level Representation: The survey was conducted in 28 rural districts across 26 states, providing insights into the activities, abilities, and aspirations of 14-18 year olds at the district level, though not nationally representative.
Literacy : Overall, 26% of 14-18 year olds cannot read a standard two level text in their regional language, reflecting concerning literacy levels.
Distribution of Children without Basic Reading Skills: Among 14-18 year olds without basic reading skills, 57% are enrolled in standard 10 or below, while 28% are not enrolled in any educational institution. This suggests a need for targeted interventions and efforts to encourage school attendance.
Challenges in Reading Improvement:
Many children who struggle with reading may face ridicule and embarrassment, leading to disengagement with reading. The availability of reading materials, including beyond textbooks, is crucial for developing reading habits and abilities.
Children and careers
Educational Aspirations: More than 60% of surveyed adolescents aim to obtain a college education, with a higher percentage of girls aspiring for higher education compared to boys.
Work Aspirations: One in five respondents had not seriously considered their future careers. Among those who had, joining the police or defense forces was prominent for boys, while becoming a teacher or doctor was prominent for girls.
Perceptions of Vocational Education: Vocational education faced negative perceptions in some areas, seen as a fallback option for those unable to secure white-collar jobs. However, in Solan, Himachal Pradesh, context-driven vocational courses such as tourism and hotel management gained aspirational value, encouraging students to aspire for related professions with the support of on-the-job training and readily available career information.
Challenges related to careers
Need for Support and Mentorship: Youth require support, mentorship, and inspiration to evaluate their aspirations, identify alternative prospects, and prepare for their chosen paths.
Lack of Familiarity with Professions: Nearly half of the surveyed adolescents with work aspirations do not personally know anyone working in their desired profession, indicating a need for greater exposure and guidance.
Digita literacy as per ASER 2023 report
Smartphone Ownership: Boys in the 14-18 age group are more than twice as likely to own smartphones compared to girls, with 43.7% of males owning smartphones compared to 19.8% of females
Digital Literacy: Girls are less likely to know how to use smartphones or computers compared to boys, with males outperforming females in tasks like using email, Google Maps, and other digital functions
Educational Usage: While about two-thirds of youth use smartphones for educational purposes, there is a notable emphasis on entertainment and social media over educational activities, indicating a need to leverage digital technology for educational purposes
Gender Gaps: The gender gap extends to online safety awareness, with boys being more familiar with safety settings than girls, highlighting the need for comprehensive strategies to address the digital gender divide
Suggestive measures to address the identified issues:
Improving Foundational Learning: Encourage school attendance by addressing the needs of 14-18 year olds without basic reading skills, with a particular emphasis on those not enrolled in any educational institution.
Role of Community Libraries: Ensure effective management of community libraries and engage committed individuals to cultivate a culture of reading and support readers of all ages and abilities.
Educational and Career Aspirations: Address the lack of familiarity with professions by offering exposure opportunities and guidance to help youth make informed career choices.
Digital Literacy and Gender Gaps: Promote educational usage of smartphones by leveraging digital technology for educational purposes and bridging the gender gap in online safety awareness.
Addressing Vocational Education Perceptions: Encourage context-driven vocational courses that align with local aspirations and provide on-the-job training and career information to support career choices.
Conclusion
To address literacy and career challenges, prioritize targeted interventions to improve educational access and support, enhance digital literacy among girls, promote vocational education, and leverage digital technology for educational purposes, bridging gender gaps.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Doxxing
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
In mid-February, a woman reported an incident of doxxing to Mumbai Police after a man shared a video of her dancing and subjected her to harassment online.
What is Doxxing?
Doxxing involves publicly disclosing an individual’s private informationwithout consent, including personal details like addresses, phone numbers, and more.
It can lead to severe consequences, including physical, digital, and emotional harm, such as stalking, threats, and loss of privacy.
Legality and Intentions
While sharing public content may be legal, the intentions behind sharing such content can be malicious and harmful.
Social media platforms like X take action against users who share information with abusive intent or to harass others.
Consequences of Doxxing
Victims of doxxing may face numerous challenges, including securing their physical location, clarifying situations with employers, and dealing with a barrage of threats.
Security measures such as changing passwords, enabling two-factor authentication, and reporting incidents to social media platforms are crucial for safeguarding against doxxing.
Legal Remedy Against Doxxing
Victims of doxxing can report incidents through platforms like the:
National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal and
File FIRs (with law enforcement authorities).
Social media companies like Meta and Google have tools and mechanisms in place to assist individuals who have been doxxed.
PYQ:
[2020] In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits?
1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one’s computer
2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant willfully damages it, if proved so
3. Cost of hiring a specialized consultant to minimize the loss in case of cyber extortion
4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third-party files a suit
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Cybercrime Index, India's position
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
A new research effort, the ‘World Cybercrime Index,’ sheds light on the global cybercrimescenario, ranking India in the 10th position worldwide.
About the World Cybercrime Index
The World Cybercrime Index has been developed as a joint partnership between the University of Oxford and University of New South Wales, Sydney.
It has been funded by CRIMGOV, a European Union-supported project.
The index was developed to identify major cybercrime hotspots globally by ranking countries based on the significant sources of cybercrime at a national level.
The study ‘Mapping the global geography of cybercrime with the World Cybercrime Index’ has been published in the journal PLOS ONE.
The five major categories of cybercrime assessed by the study were:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PMLA, 2002; Adjudication Process under PMLA, ED, FIU
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Adjudicating Authority under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) has confirmed the attachment of assets worth Rs 751.9 crore linked to a politician family.
UN General Assembly’s Political Declaration and Global Program of Action, 1990.
What is it?
Criminal law targeting money laundering and property confiscation from illicit activities.
Central to India’s anti-money laundering legal framework.
Applicable to financial institutions, banks (including RBI), mutual funds, insurance companies, and their intermediaries.
Amendments
Amended in the year 2005, 2009 and 2012.
Objectives
Confiscate proceeds of crime involved in money laundering.
Establish legal mechanisms to prevent money laundering and terrorist financing.
Strengthen investigation and prosecution of money laundering offenses.
Enhance international cooperation in combating money laundering.
Regulating Authorities
Directorate of Enforcement (ED) enforces PMLA provisions and investigates money laundering cases.
Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) receives, processes, analyses and disseminates information related to suspect financial transactions.
Salient Features
Punishment and Jail Term: Provides rigorous imprisonment from 3 to 7 years for money laundering, extendable up to 10 years.
Powers of Attachment: Director or officer above Deputy Director rank can provisionally attach suspected “proceeds of crime” property.
Adjudicating Authority: Appointed by the central government to determine involvement of attached or seized property in money laundering.
Presumption in Inter-Connected Transactions: Transactions are presumed interconnected in money laundering cases.
Burden of Proof: Accused must prove alleged proceeds of crime are lawful.
Appellate Tribunal: Empowered to hear appeals against Adjudicating Authority and other orders under the Act.
Special Court Establishment: Ensures expedited trials.
In news:Adjudicating Authority under PMLA
The ED, empowered by Section 5 of the PMLA, provisionally attaches assets suspected to be acquired through criminal proceeds.
These provisional orders, valid for 180 days, require confirmation by the Adjudicating Authority within the stipulated period to maintain legal validity.
Role of the Adjudicating Authority:
The Adjudicating Authority, appointed by the central government, reviews the attachmentorders to ensure compliance with legal standards and procedural requirements.
Failure to confirm the attachment within the prescribed timeline results in automatic release of the attached property.
Legal Ramifications Post-Confirmation:
Once confirmed, the accused retains the right to challenge the order within 45 days at the PMLA’s Appellate Tribunal.
If the order is upheld, the accused may pursue further legal avenues, while the attached property remains inaccessible until the conclusion of legal proceedings.
Impact on Property Owners and Enforcement Agencies:
Confirmed attachments may lead to the ED taking possession of residential properties, compelling owners to evacuate.
Attached properties, including vehicles, may deteriorate over time as legal battles prolong, with significant financial implications for both parties.
PYQ:
[2013] Money laundering poses a serious security threat to a country’s economic sovereignty. What is its significance for India and what steps are required to be taken to control this menace?
[2019] Consider the following statements:
1. The United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) has a ‘Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air’.
2. The UNCAC is the ever-first legally binding global anti-corruption instrument.
3. A highlight of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) is the inclusion of a specific chapter aimed at returning assets to their rightful owners from whom they had been taken illicitly.
4. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is mandated by its member States to assist in the implementation of both UNCAC and UNTOC.
Mount Etna, located on the east coast of Sicily in Italy recently gained attention for emitting circular rings of vapor from its summit, known as volcanic vortex rings.
About Mount Etna
Mount Etna is located on the east coast of Sicily, Italy.
It is an active stratovolcano, characterized by its conical shape formed by layers of hardened lava, ash, and volcanic rocks.
It is Europe’s tallest active volcano, standing at approximately 3,329 meters (10,922 feet) above sea level.
It is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and has been erupting for thousands of years, with the first recorded eruption dating back to around 1500 BCE.
Mount Etna and its surrounding area have been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2013, recognizing its geological significance and natural beauty.
It boasts five craters responsible for eruptions, alongside numerous vents along its slopes.
What are Volcanic Vortex Rings?
Volcanic vortex rings are a rare phenomenon observed when gas, primarily water vapor, is rapidly released through a vent in the volcano’s crater, forming circular rings of smoke above the mountain.
This phenomenon, similar to smoke rings blown by cigarette smokers, occurs when gas is expelled through a nearly perfect circular vent in the crater.
These rings can rise in the air for up to 10 minutes but may disintegrate quickly under windy conditions.
Volcanism in Italy
The volcanism of Italy is due chiefly to the presence, a short distance to the south, of the boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate.
Italy is a volcanically active country, containing the only active volcanoes in mainland Europe (while volcanic islands are also present in Greece, in the volcanic arc of the southern Aegean).
The lava erupted by Italy’s volcanoes is thought to result from the subduction and melting of one plate below another.
Other active volcanoes include Mt. Stromboli and Vesuvius.
Historical and Recent Observations
Etna produces more vapor rings than any other volcano on Earth, making it a hotspot for studying this phenomenon.
The occurrence of volcanic vortex rings was first documented in 1724 at Mount Etna and Vesuvius in Italy, and has since been observed at various volcanoes worldwide.
Recent observations of this phenomenon have been reported at volcanoes in Alaska, Ecuador, Guatemala, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Vanuatu, New Zealand, and Nicaragua.
Recent Volcanic Eruptions in News:
Many of the world’s most active volcanoes are concentrated in the Pacific Ring of Fire, encompassing regions like New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Japan, and the western coast of the Americas. This volatile area also experiences about 90% of all earthquakes globally.
Kilauea, Hawaii: The Kilauea volcano in Hawaii captivated the world with a nearly nonstop eruption that began in 1983 and continued for an astonishing 35 years until 2018. Remarkably, it rekindled in 2021, with the eruption still ongoing.
Dukono, Indonesia: Erupting since August 1933, Dukono volcano in Indonesia stands as a testament to long-term volcanic activity, defying the passage of time.
Santa Maria, Guatemala: The eruption of Santa Maria in Guatemala commenced in June 1922 and persists to this day, underscoring the enduring nature of certain volcanic phenomena.
Yasur, Vanuatu: Yasur in Vanuatu first erupted around 1270 and has maintained its volcanic activity, continuing as of June 9, 2023.
Understanding Volcanoes
Volcanoes are geological features characterized by openings or vents through which lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt onto the Earth’s surface.
They result from both their own eruptions and the broader processes of tectonic plate movement.
Volcanic eruptions are essentially the result of magma, or molten rock, beneath the Earth’s surface rising, bubbling, and ultimately overflowing, much like boiling milk spilling out of a pot on a stove.
The magma seeks pathways to vents within the volcano, where it erupts and is expelled across the land and into the atmosphere, a phenomenon referred to as lava.
Appearance
Formation
Eruption Style
Notable Examples
Cinder Cones
Small, steep, conical
Formed from basaltic magma with high gas content
Often explosive eruptions with cinders/scoria
Paricutin (Mexico), Sunset Crater (USA)
Composite/Stratovolcanoes
Tall and symmetrical
Result from alternating layers of lava, ash, etc.
Both explosive and effusive eruptions
Mount St. Helens (USA), Mount Fuji (Japan)
Shield Volcanoes
Broad and gently sloping
Primarily formed from basaltic magma
Primarily non-explosive with extensive lava flows
Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea (Hawaii)
Lava Domes
Rounded dome-like shape
Formed from slow extrusion of viscous magma
Typically non-explosive but can be dangerous
Novarupta Dome (Alaska), Mount St. Helens’ Lava Dome (USA)
PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following statements:
1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
