GS-1 The Freedom Struggle — its various stages and important contributors/contributions from different parts of the country.
GS-2 Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies; Federalism
GS-3 Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on industrial growth.
GS-4 Ethics and Human Interface: Essence, determinants and consequences of Ethics in-human actions; dimensions of ethics; ethics – in private and public relationships.
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The Varanasi District and Sessions Court has rejected the plea of the organization which manages the Gyanvapi mosque complex, challenging the maintainability of the civil suits filed by some women seeking the right to worship Goddesses on the outer wall of the complex.
About Gyanvapi Mosque
The Gyanvapi Mosque was built in 1669 during the reign of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, who ordered the demolition of the existing Vishweshwar temple at the site, and its replacement by a mosque.
The plinth of the temple was left untouched, and served as the courtyard of the mosque.
One of the walls too was spared, and it became the qibla wall, the most important wall in a mosque that faces Mecca.
Material from the destroyed temple was used to build the mosque, evidence of which can be seen today.
The name of the mosque is said to have derived from an adjoining well, the Gyanvapi, or Well of Knowledge.
An old sculpture of the Nandi bull inside the compound of the present Kashi Vishwanath Temple faces the wall of the mosque instead of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple.
It is believed that Nandi is in fact, facing the sanctum sanctorum of the original Vishweshwar temple.
The temple to Lord Shiva
For more than 100 years after the mosque was built, there was no temple at the site.
The present Kashi Vishwanath Temple was built in the 18th century by Rani Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore, immediately to the south of the mosque.
Over the decades it emerged as one of the most prominent and revered centres of the Hindu religion.
Many Hindus have long believed that the original deity of the erstwhile Vishweshwar temple was hidden by the priests inside the Gyanvapi well during Aurangzeb’s raid.
This has fired the desire to conduct puja and rituals at the sacred place where the mosque now stands.
Longstanding claims
From time to time, petitioners have laid claim to the mosque, saying it remains the original sacred place of Hindu worship.
The Ayodhya movement also aimed to “liberate” the Kashi-Vishwanath Temple-Gyanvapi mosque site and the Shri Krishna Janmabhoomi in Mathura as well.
What laws restrict such acts?
The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991 — which mandates that the nature of all places of worship, except the one in Ayodhya that was then under litigation, shall be maintained as it was on August 15, 1947.
It maintains that no encroachment of any such place prior to the date can be challenged in courts — applies to the disputed complex in Varanasi.
What was the case before the Court?
The temple worshipers side had argued that the mosque was built on the site of an older temple, while the another side pleaded that the mosque was built on Wakf premises.
The case was initially heard by the Civil Judge (Senior Division), Varanasi, but it was transferred by the Supreme Court to the District Judge on grounds of the “complexity of the issues involved in the civil suit”.
The Supreme Court said it would wait for the district court’s decision on the mosque committee’s application before intervening in the matter.
Issue in Limelight
In April 2021, Fast Track Court Civil Judge ordered the Archaeological Survey of India to get a comprehensive archaeological physical survey” done of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple-Gyanvapi Mosque complex.
It was tasked to find out as to whether the religious structure standing at present at the disputed site is a superimposition, alteration or addition or there is a structural overlapping of any kind, with or over, any religious structure.
The mosque is not an ASI-protected site, and the ASI has no role in its maintenance or upkeep.
What are the people seeking now?
Worshippers find the cut-off date of August 15, 1947, is “arbitrary, irrational and retrospective” and prohibits Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs from approaching courts to “reclaim” their places of worship.
Such places, they argue, were “invaded” and “encroached” upon by “fundamentalist barbaric invaders”.
Certain groups have opposed the law even when it was introduced, arguing that the Centre has no power to legislate on “pilgrimages” or “burial grounds” which are under the state list.
Guys, as wealth without work, is a greater sin, knowledge without practice is an unacceptable folly. To attain success, polishing your thought is a must and to catch up with the hands of the clock, practice and practice are the only things that matter the most to an IAS aspirant.
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The government plans to start a GPS-based toll system in place of FASTag to ensure seamless payment and vehicle movement on national highways.
Why in news?
The move would end the role of toll plazas across the country.
How will a GPS-based tolling system work?
Vehicles will be fitted with an electronic device that can track their movement.
Highways will be geo-fenced, creating virtual boundaries. The system will use GPS or radio frequency identification technologies.
The software will recognize when a mobile device enters or leaves a particular area, and toll will be charged based on the distance travelled at the highway’s exit point.
As the system is based on sensors, there will be no need to stop at toll plazas.
Vehicles and users must be registered with the GPS toll system, linked to bank accounts that will be used to transfer toll payments.
What are FASTags?
FASTags are stickers that are affixed to the windscreen of vehicles and use Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology to enable digital, contactless payment of tolls without having to stop at toll gates.
RFID uses electromagnetic fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects.
The tags are linked to bank accounts and other payment methods.
As a car crosses a toll plaza, the amount is automatically deducted, and a notification is sent to the registered mobile phone number.
Issues with FASTags
Since the card is affixed to the windscreen, it can be easily misplaced, damaged or stolen.
The existing FASTag system, though faster than cash payments, still requires vehicles to stop at toll booths to enable reading of tags.
Also, the vehicle must wait till the gate is opened.
It has been observed that sometimes the toll fee is deducted twice from user account. Mostly, this happens due to a technical glitch.
Some card readers take longer time to read and register. Hence the purpose of saving time is itself defied.
Still, the wait time at toll booths is much more than the 30 seconds that was promised earlier.
Also, it has not helped reduce the number of toll booths.
Hence the benefits of using FASTag far outweigh the challenges.
Is FASTags a total failure?
Usage has increased since FASTag was made mandatory in 2021 after its launch in 2015.
Penetration has grown from nearly 16% in FY18 to 96.3% in FY22.
Total toll collection in FY18 was ₹21,948 crore, including ₹3,532 crore collected through FASTags.
In FY22, toll collection through FASTags increased sharply to ₹33,274 crore out of total toll collection of ₹34,535 crore.
How will GPS benefit highway users?
GPS tolling uses satellite-based navigation and requires no halting.
Also, vehicles can be charged only for their actual travel on a highway stretch.
Currently, toll is paid at toll booths which is fixed between two points of tolling and a user does not get any concession even if he/she exits before completing the full run between two toll plazas.
The new system should reduce the toll amount charged for travel on highways.
What is the progress so far on GPS tolling?
The Union road ministry has amended the National Highways Fee (Determination of Rates and Collection) Rules, 2008, allowing for the collection of toll based on distance travelled on national highways.
This will facilitate the introduction of GPS tolling.
First trials may be done on the under-construction Mumbai-Delhi expressway which will be geo-fenced.
Also the cost of GPS devices needs to be considered at very beginning.
Way forward
The system needs a proper legislative framework, and a full launch is still years away. The government intends to introduce it in phases.
The road ministry is expected to amend the Motor Vehicles Act and create rules to facilitate GPS tolling as well as to penalize offenders.
Moreover, GPS will come with its own set of complications on calculating differential tolls.
Regulations and framework for these need to be developed first.
The expert committee formed by the Uttarakhand government to examine ways for the implementation of a Uniform Civil Code (UCC) has launched a website, seeking public opinion on the plan.
What is a Uniform Civil Code?
A Uniform Civil Code (UCC) is one that would provide for one personal civil law for the entire country.
This would be applicable to all religious communities in their personal matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption etc.
Basis for Uniform Civil Code
Article 44, one of the Directive Principles of the Constitution lays down that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for the citizens throughout the territory of India.
These, as defined in Article 37, are not justiciable (not enforceable by any court) but the principles laid down therein are fundamental in governance.
Personal Laws And Uniform Civil Code: Timeline
# British period During the British Raj, Personal laws were first framed mainly for Hindu and Muslims citizens.
# Start of 20th Century
In the beginning of the twentieth century, the demand for a uniform civil code was first put forward by the women activists. The objective behind this demand was the women’s rights, equality and secularism.
# 1940 – The Idea of Uniform Civil Code is born
The idea of Uniform Civil Code was tabled by the National Planning Commission (NPC) appointed by the Congress. There was a subcommittee who was to examine women’s status and recommends reforms of personal law for gender equality.
# 1947 – Question of UCC as a Fundamental Right UCC was sought to be enshrined in the Constitution of India as a fundamental right by Minoo Masani, Hansa Mehta, Amrit Kaur and Dr. B.R Ambedkar.
# 1948 – Constitution Assembly debated UCC
Article 44 of the Indian Constitution i.e. Directive Principles of State Policy sets implementation of uniform civil laws which is the duty of the state under Part IV.
# 1950 – Reformist Bill passed
Reformist bills were passed which gave the Hindu women the right to divorce and inherit property. Bigamy and child marriages are outlawed. Such reforms were resisted by Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
# 1951 – Dr. Ambedkar Resigns
Dr. Ambedkar resigned from the cabinet in 1951 when his draft of the Hindu Code Bill was stalled by the Parliament.
# 1985 – Shah Bano Case
In this case, a divorced Muslim woman was brought within the ambit of Section 125 of Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 by the Supreme Court in which it was declared by the Apex court that she was entitled for maintenance even after the completion ofiddatperiod.
# 1995- Sarla Mudgal v. Union of India In this case, Justice Kuldip Singh reiterated the need for the Parliament to frame a Uniform Civil Code, which would help the cause of national integration by removing contradictions based on ideologies. Therefore, the responsibility entrusted on the State under Article 44 of the Constitution whereby a Uniform Civil Code must be secured has been urged by the Supreme Court repeatedly as a matter of urgency.
# 2000 – Supreme Court advocates UCC The case of Lily Thomas v. Union of India (2000),where the Supreme Court said it could not direct the centre to introduce a UCC.
# 2015 – The Debate lives through
The apex court refused to direct the government to take a decision on having a UCC.
# 2016 – Triple Talaq Debate When PM asked the Law Commission to examine the issue.
# 2017 – Ruling of the Triple Talaq case
Triple Talaq (Talaq -e- biddat) was declared unconstitutional on August 22, 2017.
UCC vs. Right to Freedom of Religion
Article 25 lays down an individual’s fundamental right to religion
Article 26(b) upholds the right of each religious denomination or any section thereof to “manage its own affairs in matters of religion”
Article 29 defines the right to conserve distinctive culture
Reasonable restrictions on the Freedom of Religion
An individual’s freedom of religion under Article 25 issubject to “public order, health, morality” and other provisions relating to FRs, but a group’s freedom under Article 26 has not been subjected to other FRs.
In the Constituent Assembly, there was division on the issue of putting UCC in the fundamental rights chapter. The matter was settled by a vote.
By a 5:4 majority, the fundamental rights sub-committee headed by Sardar Patel held that the provision was outside the scope of FRs and therefore the UCC was made less important.
Minority Opinion in the Constituent Assembly
Some members sought to immunize Muslim Personal Law from state regulation.
Mohammed Ismail, who thrice tried unsuccessfully to get Muslim Personal Law exempted from Article 44, said a secular state should not interfere with the personal law of people.
B Pocker Saheb said he had received representations against a common civil code from various organisations, including Hindu organisations.
Hussain Imam questioned whether there could ever be uniformity of personal laws in a diverse country like India.
B R Ambedkar said “no government can use its provisions in a way that would force the Muslims to revolt”.
Alladi Krishnaswami, who was in favour of a UCC, conceded that it would be unwise to enact UCC ignoring strong opposition from any community.
Gender justice was never discussed in these debates.
Enacting and Enforcing UCC
Fundamental rights are enforceable in a court of law.
While Article 44 uses the words “state shall endeavour”, other Articles in the ‘Directive Principles’ chapter use words such as “in particular strive”; “shall in particular direct its policy”; “shall be obligation of the state” etc.
Article 43 mentions “state shall endeavour by suitable legislation” while the phrase “by suitable legislation” is absent in Article 44.
All this implies that the duty of the state is greater in other directive principles than in Article 44.
What are more important — fundamental rights or directive principles?
There is no doubt that fundamental rights are more important.
The Supreme Court held in Minerva Mills (1980): Indian Constitution is founded on the bed-rock of the balance between Parts III (Fundamental Rights) and IV (Directive Principles).
To give absolute primacy to one over the other is to disturb the harmony of the Constitution.
Article 31C inserted by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, however, lays down that if a law is made to implement any directive principle, it cannot be challenged on the ground of being violative of the FRs under Articles 14 and 19.
What about Personal Laws?
Citizens belonging to different religions and denominations follow different property and matrimonial laws which are an affront to the nation’s unity.
If the framers of the Constitution had intended to have a UCC, they would have given exclusive jurisdiction to Parliament in respect of personal laws, by including this subject in the Union List.
“Personal Laws” are mentioned in the Concurrent List.
Various customary laws
All Hindus of the country are not governed by one law, nor are all Muslims or all Christians.
Muslims of Kashmir were governed by a customary law, which in many ways was at variance with Muslim Personal Law in the rest of the country and was, in fact, closer to Hindu law.
Even on the registration of marriage among Muslims, laws differ from place to place.
In the Northeast, there are more than 200 tribes with their own varied customary laws.
The Constitution itself protects local customs in Nagaland. Similar protections are enjoyed by Meghalaya and Mizoram.
Even reformed Hindu law, in spite of codification, protects customary practices.
Why need UCC?
UCC would provide equal status to all citizens
It would promote gender parity in Indian society.
UCC would accommodate the aspirations of the young population who imbibe liberal ideology.
Its implementation would thus support the national integration.
Hurdles to UCC implementation
There are practical difficulties due to religious and cultural diversity in India.
The UCC is often perceived by minorities as an encroachment of religious freedom.
It is often regarded as interference of the state in personal matters of the minorities.
Experts often argue that the time is not ripe for Indian society to embrace such UCC.
These questions need to be addressed which are being completely ignored in the present din around UCC.
Firstly, how can uniformity in personal laws are brought without disturbing the distinct essence of each and every component of the society.
Secondly, what makes us believe that practices of one community are backward and unjust?
Thirdly, has other uniformities been able to eradicate inequalities that diminish the status of our society as a whole?
Way forward
It should be the duty of the religious intelligentia to educate the community about its rights and obligations based on modern liberal interpretations.
A good environment for the UCC must be prepared by the government by explaining the contents and significance of Article 44 taking all into confidence.
Social reforms are not overnight but gradual phenomena. They are often vulnerable to media evils such as fake news and disinformation.
Social harmony and the cultural fabric of our nation must be the priority.
India’s statistics ministry generates only one high-frequency gauge of economic activity. And that lone barometer, the index of industrial production (IIP), is completely broken.
What is IIP?
The Index of Industrial Production (IIP) is an index that indicates the performance of various industrial sectors of the Indian economy. It is a composite indicator of the general level of industrial activity in the economy.
How is IIP calculated?
IIP is calculated as the weighted average of production relatives of all the industrial activities. In the mathematical calculation Laspeyre’s fixed base formula is used.
What are the Core Industries in India?
The main or the key industries constitute the core sectors of an economy.
In India, there are eight sectors that are considered the core sectors.
They are electricity, steel, refinery products, crude oil, coal, cement, natural gas and fertilizers.
Which has highest weightage in IIP?
The eight core sector industries in decreasing order of their weightage: Refinery Products> Electricity> Steel> Coal> Crude Oil> Natural Gas> Cement> Fertilizers.
Why is IIP important?
IIP is the only measure on the physical volume of production. It is used by government agencies including the Ministry of Finance, the Reserve Bank of India, etc. for policy-making purposes. IIP remains extremely relevant for the calculation of the quarterly and advance GDP estimates.
Who releases IIP data?
The IIP data is compiled and published by CSO every month.
The IIP index data, once released, is also available on the PIB website.
How useful are monthly IIP figures to draw a conclusion about India’s growth?
IIP figures are monthly data and as such it keeps going up and down.
In fact, the release calls them “quick estimates” because they tend to get revised after a month or two.
IIP Index Components
Mining, manufacturing, and electricity are the three broad sectors in which IIP constituents fall.
The relative weights of these three sectors are 77.6% (manufacturing), 14.4% (mining) and 8% (electricity).
Electricity, crude oil, coal, cement, steel, refinery products, natural gas, and fertilizers are the eight core industries that comprise about 40 per cent of the weight of items included in the IIP.
Basket of products
Primary Goods (consisting of mining, electricity, fuels and fertilisers)
India is going to be at the centre stage of geopolitical spectrum as India will be hosting G20 summit presidency from December 2022. As Harsh V. Shringla, India’s chief G20 coordinator and former Foreign Secretary, (Amitabh kant is G20 Sherpa of India) recently said, “Our G20 Presidency would place India on the global stage, and provide an opportunity for India to place its priorities and narratives on the global agenda.”
What is G20 (Group of Twenty)?
Composed of most of the world’s largest economies: 19 countries plus European Union, including both industrialized and developing nations. Together, its members represent more than 80% of the world’s GDP, 75% of international trade and 60% of the world’s population.
Role: To address major issues related to the global economy such as international financial stability, climate change mitigation, and sustainable development.
It is an Intergovernmental forum.
Strategic role: The G20 holds a strategic role in securing global economic growth and prosperity.
In November this year, the 17th G20 Heads of State and Government Summit will take place in Bali.
After Indonesia, India will assume the presidency of the G20 from December 1, 2022 to November 30, 2023.
By hosting the summit of the G20, India will have the opportunity to assume centre stage in proposing and setting the global agenda and discourse.
India can assert its political, economic and intellectual leadership while hosting the G20 presidency.
Further it Provides India an opportunity to also champion the causes of developing and least developed countries.
India could invite and engage countries from Africa and South America to ensure better and more balanced representation at the G20.
Challenges before India:
Global
World affected by the pandemic: Uneven vaccine availability has been flagged by many countries. Vaccine issue upset some countries.
Ukraine conflict: According to external affairs ministers Dr.S.Jaishankar due to Ukraine conflict world is divided and this poses the challenge for India to bring rival camp on same stage
Climate change: Divergent view of developed and developing countries on climate change can be the bone of contention between west and the rest.
The rise of an assertive China: To maintain the delicate balance between NATO, G7 on the on hand while Russia and china on the other (as India is part of both QUAD and SCO).
Domestic
Economic challenges: Such as stagflation, unemployment, exchange rate, declining prospects for exports and rising trade deficit.
Terrorism: Cross border terrorism emanating from Pakistan.
Indonesia has focused on three key pillars in its presidency of G20 presidency:
Global health architecture: president of Indonesia Joko Widodo talked about a global contingency fund for medical supplies, building capacity in developing countries to manufacture vaccines and the creation of global health protocols and standards.
Sustainable energy transition: as part of its roadmap to reach net zero by 2060, Indonesia had slashed the coverage area of forest fires sevenfold. The country has restored peatlands and rehabilitated 50,000 hectares of mangrove forests.
Digital transformation
What India can address?
Issues of global concern: Terrorism, climate change, stagflation etc.
Domestic and regional: economic recovery, trade and investment, unemployment, patent waivers on diagnostics, therapeutics, vaccines etc.
Greater co-operation and co-ordination: free trade agreements, supply chain resilience mechanism, stressing on green and digital transformations in the economy and its impact on societal well-being.
Other important Areas :such as technology transfer, assistance towards green economy, greater access to trade for developing countries, addressing debt distress of countries by offering sustainable aid and loan programmes, tackling food and energy prices/security for vulnerable economies etc.
Why G20 summit presidency is an opportunity for India?
India exchange the G20 presidency with Indonesia and chose 2023 instead of 2022 to host the G20 countries.
India wanted to showcase its prowess in its 75th year of independence as cornerstone of new emerging world order. As India is part of Quad and SCO BRICS -the warring factions at world stage, it’s an opportunity in crisis to become the bridge of the divided world.
India is hosting the summit in Kashmir. World media will be in the Kashmir. In the direct message to world India will again assert that Kashmir is an integral part of India.
Way ahead
As India will be hosting G20 and SCO summits, India will be central in outlining key priority areas. India can assert its political, economic and intellectual leadership which will have to address issues that help in cement the Fault-line in the world order.
India’s leadership could define the coming years and decades of global discourse and avenues of cooperation.
Other related Information
SCO (Shanghai Co-operation Organization):
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic and security organization. It is the world’s largest regional organization, 40% of the world population, and more than 30% of global GDP.
Members: The Shanghai Five group was created on 26 April 1996; China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India and Pakistan.
QUAD:
Known as the ‘Quadrilateral Security Dialogue’ (QSD), the Quad is an informal strategic forum comprising four nations, namely – United States of America (USA), India, Australia and Japan.
One of the primary objectives of the Quad is to work for a free, open, prosperous and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.
G7:
The Group of Seven (G7) is an inter-governmental political forum consisting of Canada, France Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. In addition, the European Union is a ‘non-enumerated member.
Mains Question
Q. India can take advantage of G20 for its economic growth and security architecture. Discuss.
This is the world’s first intercontinental translocation of a carnivore. It is even more unique because this is the first time cheetahs has reintroduced in an unfenced protected area (PA).
The Government is preparing to translocate the first batch from South Africa and Namibia to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh.
About Asiatic Cheetah
Feature: Cheetah, the world’s fastest land animal was declared extinct in India in 1952.
Status: The Asiatic cheetah is classified as a “critically endangered” species by the IUCN Red List, and is believed to survive only in Iran.
Reintroduction: It was expected to be re-introduced into the country after the Supreme Court lifted curbs for its re-introduction.
Extinction: From 400 in the 1990s, their numbers are estimated to have reached to 50-70 today, because of poaching, hunting of their main prey (gazelles) and encroachment on their habitat.
What caused the extinction of cheetahs in India?
Reduced fecundity and high infant mortality in the wild
Inability to breed in captivity
Sport hunting
Bounty killings
Why reintroduce Cheetahs?
Climate Change Mitigation: It will enhance India’s capacity to sequester carbon through ecosystem restoration activities in cheetah conservation areas and thereby contribute towards the global climate changemitigation goals.
Reintroductions of large carnivores have increasingly been recognized as a strategy to conserve threatened species and restore ecosystem functions.
The cheetah is the only large carnivore that has been extirpated, mainly by over-hunting in India in historical times.
India now has the economic ability to consider restoring its lost natural heritage for ethical as well as ecological reasons.
Why was Kuno National Park chosen for Cheetah Reintroduction?
Both Cheetah and Asiatic Lions share the same habitats semi-arid grasslands and forests that stretch across Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.
The rainfall, temperature, and altitude in the Sheopur district, where Kuno is situated, are equivalent to those of South Africa and Namibia.
In addition, Kuno contains a diverse population of prey species, including peafowl, wild pigs, gazelle, langurs, chital, sambhar, and nilgai.
What are the Other Recent Initiatives for Wildlife Conservation in India?
Legal Framework:
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
Environment Protection Act, 1986
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
India’s Collaboration with Global Wildlife Conservation Efforts:
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
Parts of Bengaluru, India’s IT and startup capital faced unprecedented floods last week. This is not the first instance of urban flooding in India.
In fact, urban flooding is becoming increasingly common in many parts of the country with this monsoon season itself seeing many such instances in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.
In this context, this edition of the burning issue will look at the rising problem of urban flooding in India, its causes and consequences, and finally few solutions to it.
Some major Urban Flooding incidents
There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several years whereby major cities in India have been severely affected.
The most notable amongst them are Hyderabad in 2000, Ahmedabad in 2001, Delhi in 2002 and 2003, Chennai in 2004, Mumbai in 2005, Surat in 2006, Kolkata in 2007, Jamshedpur in 2008, Delhi in 2009 and Guwahati and Delhi in 2010. The most recent devastating ones were Srinagar in 2014 and Chennai in 2015
What is urban flooding?
Urban flooding is the inundation of property in a built environment, particularly in more densely populated urban areas, caused by heavy rainfall on increased amounts of impervious surfaces and overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems.
Urban floods stem from a combination of various meteorological and hydrological extremes, such as extreme precipitation and flow in short spans of time.
Thus, flooding in urban areas is caused by intense and/or prolonged rainfall, which overwhelms the capacity of the drainage system.
Features of Urban Floods
Faster Flow times: Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times, sometimes in a matter of minutes.
Catchment destruction: Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed catchments which are the most vulnerable areas.
Causes of Urban Flooding
Natural factors:
Meteorological Factors: Heavy rainfall, cyclonic storms and thunderstorms cause water to flow quickly through paved urban areas and impound in low-lying areas.
Hydrological Factors: Overbank flow channel networks, the occurrence of high tides impeding the drainage in coastal cities.
Climate Change: Climate change due to various anthropogenic events has led to extreme weather events.
Anthropological factors:
Unplanned Urbanization: Unplanned Urbanization is the key cause of urban flooding. A major concern is the blocking of natural drainage pathways through construction activity and encroachment on catchment areas, riverbeds and lakebeds.
Destruction of lakes: A major issue in Indian cities. Lakes can store excess water and regulate the flow of water. However, pollution of natural urban water bodies and converting them for development purposes has increased the risk of floods.
Unauthorized colonies and excess construction: Reduced infiltration due to paving of surfaces which decreases ground absorption and increases the speed and amount of surface flow
Poor Solid Waste Management System: Improper waste management system and clogging of storm-water drains because of silting, accumulation of non-biodegradable wastes and construction debris.
Drainage System: Old and ill-maintained drainage system is another factor making cities in India vulnerable to flooding.
Irresponsible steps: Lack of attention to the natural hydrological system and lack of flood control measures.
Human determinism: The fact is that our cities have been built with little to no regard for the natural topography and severely lack holistic action.
Weaker laws: We have in place the provisions of rainwater harvesting, sustainable urban drainage systems, etc, in regulatory mechanisms like the EIA notification 2006 but still these are on paper majorly.
Weaker Urban bodies capacity: Public bodies’ focus is largely on de-silting of stormwater drains before monsoon and expansion of the over-burdened infrastructure, but at a crawling pace.
Lacunae in Urban Planning
No mapping of water bodies: The preliminary work of mapping and documentation of the surface water bodies even though mentioned by NDMA under the National Database for Mapping Attributes has not been undertaken.
Failed early-warning system: During the floods of Uttarakhand in 2013, there were questions about the role of NDMA, where it failed to implement the early warning systems to inform people about the floods and landslides.
Response rather than mitigation: The importance of preparedness for disaster situations like urban floods was realized by the government agencies only after the devastations during Chennai Floods in 2015 and Kerala Floods in 2018.
Responsiveness of Local bodies: Sufficient training, equipment, and facilities for immediate response and tackling the disaster situation efficiently are not being carried out by the local governments. More onus of mitigation lies with NDMA/SDMA.
Misutilization of Funds: NDRF/SDRF constituted by the government to deal with the disasters, were used for expenses that were not sanctioned for disaster management. There were cases of financial indiscipline in state management of funds.
Consequences of Urban Floods
On the economy: Damage to infrastructure, roads and settlements, industrial production, basic supplies, post-disaster rehabilitation difficulties etc.
On human population and wildlife: Trauma, loss of life, injuries and disease outbreak, contamination of water etc.
On the environment: Loss of habitat, tree and forest cover, biodiversity loss and large-scale greenery recovery failure.
On transport and communication: Increased traffic congestion, disruption in rail services, disruption in communication- on the telephone, internet cables causing massive public inconvenience.
Diseases: the stagnation of flood water causes pollution of drinking water and accumulation of waste in dustbins and on the open road, thus acting as a host of several pathogens and resulting in the spread of diseases like Dengue, Malaria etc.
Tangible losses: The losses that can be measured physically and can be assigned an economic value. These losses can be direct or indirect. Direct – Structural damage to buildings, property damage and damage to infrastructurewhereas Indirect – Economic losses, Traffic disruption, and emergency costs.
Intangible losses: Intangible losses include loss of life, secondary health effects, and infections or damages to the environment which are difficult to assess in monetary terms since they are not traded such as Casualties, health effects, ecological losses, the Post-flood recovery process, mental damage to the people.
Solutions to Urban Flooding
Improved flood warning systems: effective flood warning systems can help take timely action during natural calamities and can save lives. Pre-planning can significantly reduce the effects of floods, giving people time to migrate to safer locations and stock up on essentials.
Building flood-resilient housing systems: concrete floors can be very useful during floods. Houses should be waterproofed and electric sockets should be placed at higher levels up the walls to reduce the chances of shocks.
Constructing buildings above flood levels: buildings should be constructed a meter above the ground to prevent flood damage and evacuation during floods.
Resilience to Climate change: drastic climate changes have increased the frequency of natural disasters in many parts of the world. Governments should bring about environment-friendly policy level changes and eliminate the ones hazardous to the environment to tackle the problem of global warming.
Create wetlands and encourage reforestation: creating more and more wetlands can help soak up excessive moisture since wetlands act as sponges. Wooded areas can also slow down heavy water flow, minimizing the effects of floods. Reforesting upstream regions can significantly reduce the effects of flood damage.
Installing flood barriers: these are flood gates designed to prevent the area behind the barrier from flooding. They can also be kept around buildings to keep floodwaters outside the boundary created.
Some international Models of Urban flood control
(A) To enhance Preventive measures
It can learn a lesson or two from cities in Japan, Malaysia and Europe. These cities have well-prepared mapped flood zones.
By combining field surveys, historical records, satellite imagery and infrastructure assessment, they have identified vulnerable areas.
Such maps and data are shared with citizens, which help them understand the status of their neighborhoods and decide where to move or buy new homes.
(B) To enhance Mitigation
Kuala Lumpur and Tokyo have built extensive water discharge tunnels to divert and store floodwater. This reduces the volume of water that washes the city.
Tokyo has one of the largest underground tunnels, running to a length of 6.5 km, and the tank can hold 6,70,000 cubic metres of diverted water, which is later pumped into safe watercourses using turbines.
(C) To enhance Response measures
As cities increasingly face natural hazards and terrorist attacks, they are investing in setting operation centers for early warning and rescue work.
For example, Rio de Janeiro has spent $14 million and created a real-time monitoring center of infrastructure and traffic flows.
The recent experience clearly shows the need for early warning and dissemination of reliable information about floods and rescue.
(D)The Dutch Model of Flood Management
‘Live with Water, Built with Nature’ sees cities as ‘waterscape’ and not ‘landscape’ as most of our cities are built along water bodies like river banks or coastal areas. The model proposes nature-based solutions for flood management in cities.
(E) Yongning River Park model
Of China where artificial wetlands are created in and around cities to allow periodic flooding in these parks and act as a buffer for cities and thus preventing flooding.
Way forward
Building Resilience: The rapid transformation in rainfall characteristics and flooding patterns demands building the resilience of people and urban infrastructure.
Reconsider projects: Construction projects that impede the movement of water and sediment across the floodplain must be reconsidered.
Use of technology: At the same time, climate-imposed exigencies demand new paradigms of early-warning and response systems and securing livelihoods and economies.
Climate variability assessment: As the incidence of climate variability and extreme weather events increases, it is inevitable that we look at the issue from a broad-based perspective.
Innovation: Water-sensitive urban design and planning techniques — especially in the context of implementation — are of utmost importance. Ex. Sponge Cities.
Environmental determinism: Planning must take into consideration the topography, types of surfaces (pervious or impervious), and natural drainage and leave very less impact on the environment.
Vulnerability Analysis: Vulnerability analyses and risk assessments should form part and parcel of city master plans.
Extending IN-FLOWS flood control systems which have been installed in Chennai and Mumbai to other major cities also.
Conclusion
A June 2020 Ministry of Earth Sciences climate change assessment report noted how the increased frequencies of heavy rainfall had enhanced flood risk all over India, particularly in urban areas. This requires an urgent fix.
Thus, Flooding in India is also all set to increase in magnitude and intensity. The need of the hour is to adopt the Sendai framework’s Disaster risk resilience approach in Urban flood management in India to better cope with urban floods and reduce their impact as much as possible.
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Context 
How is IIP calculated?
Why is IIP important?
Context
Challenges before India:
