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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Smog Tower

    Recently New Delhi got its first smog tower (a prototype air purifier). In November, the Supreme Court had directed the Centre and the Delhi government to prepare a plan to install ‘smog towers’ across the capital to deal with air pollution.

    What is a ‘Smog Tower’?

    • Smog towers are structures designed to work as large-scale air purifiers.
    • They are usually fitted with multiple layers of air filters, which clean the air of pollutants as it passes through them.
    • The smog tower installed at Lajpat Nagar is capable of treating 6,00,000 cubic metres of air per day and can collect more than 75 per cent of particulate matters (PM) 2.5 and 10.
    • After the cleaning, the tower releases clean air.
    • The project is collaboration between the IIT Bombay, IIT-Delhi and the University of Minnesota, the latter having helped design a similar tower of over 100 metres in China’s Xi’an city.
    • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) will also be involved with the project.

    How it works?

    • The 20-metre (65 feet) high tower will trap particulate matter of all sizes suspended in the air.
    • Large-scale air filters shall draw in the air through fans installed at the top before passing it through the filters and releasing it near the ground.
    • The filters installed in the tower will use carbon nanofibres as a major component and will be fitted along its peripheries. The tower will focus on reducing particulate matter load.

    Other examples in the world

    • China, which has been battling air pollution for years, has two smog towers — in its capital Beijing and in the northern city of Xi’an.
    • The Xi’an tower is dubbed the world’s largest, and has reportedly brought down PM 2.5 by 19% in an area of around 6 sq km in its vicinity.
    • The 100-metre (328 feet) high tower has produced 10 million cubic metres of clean air every day since its launch.
    • On severely polluted days the tower is able to bring down smog close to moderate levels.

  • India’s policies for ‘Urban Lakes’

    Context

    • Historically, cities were built along waterways or lakes.
    • Over time, human settlements near water bodies and lakes have transformed the natural environment into the towns and cities we see today.
    • Urban lakes are an important part of city ecosystems as they play a major role in providing environmental, social and economic services.

    Famous Urban Lakes in India

    Carambolim (Goa), Chilika (Odisha), Dal (Jammu and Kashmir), Deepor Beel (Assam), Khabartal (Bihar), Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh), Loktak (Manipur), Naini (Uttrakhand), Nalsarovar (Gujarat), and Vembanad (Kerala)

    Threats to these Lakes

    These lake ecosystems are presently endangered due to anthropogenic disturbances caused by Urbanisation as they have been heavily degraded due to pollution from disposal of untreated local sewage or due to encroachment, resulting in shrunken lakes.

    Why conserve them?

    • Lakes in urban areas provide us with prime opportunities for recreation, tourism and domestic purposes.
    • They hold historical and traditional values and at places are a source of water supply for a municipality.
    • Appropriate lake function can ease the impact of floods and droughts by storing large amounts of water and releasing it during shortages.
    • Lakes also help in replenishing groundwater level as they are essential receptors for groundwater recharge, positively influencing water quality of downstream watercourses and preserving the biodiversity and habitat of the surrounding area.
    • Lakes in urban areas are also used as a source of water for industries, irrigation and agriculture.

    Defining Urban Lakes

    • There is no specific definition for ‘urban lakes’ in India.
    • According to the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP), a water body having a minimum depth of three metres, spread over more than 10 hectares, and having no or very little aquatic vegetation, is considered as a lake.

    The definition provided by NLCP is based on broad hydrological and morphometry criteria of a lake:

    • The apparent definition of urban lakes seems to those located entirely within city limits (census town) and directly surrounded by urban developments, with some recreation facilities limited to the shoreline area (parks, playgrounds).

    OR

    • The lakes which are predominantly affected by urban human populations and their drainage basin is dominated by urbanisation, rather than geology, soils or agriculture. Such lakes are situated only partially within city limits, or attached but not necessarily surrounded, entirely by city development.

    Issues with the definition

    • One of the obstacles for effective protection of these interlinked lakes in cities is the lack of a clear definition of an ‘urban lake’ in the Indian context.
    • The definition provided under the guideline of NLCP acknowledges only broad hydrological criteria to define a water body as a lake.
    • This definition ignores the fact that the water depth and spread keep changing every year, depending on various environmental factors.
    • In fact, there are very few urban lakes that fit into this definition since most of them occupy a small area (<10 ha), are seasonal and shallow.

    Various policy measures

    Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1974

    • Planning interventions for water bodies started as early as 1927.
    • In the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act in 1974, directions were given to control the flow of sewage and industrial effluents into water bodies.

    Ramsar Convention

    • The need for lake conservation was felt when India became a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1982.
    • The Convention called for the conservation and wise use of wetlands (including water bodies).
    • Twenty-six Ramsar sites, covering an area of 689,000 ha, were identified in India.

    National Wetland Conservation Programme

    • The Indian government operationalised the Programme in closed collaboration with concerned state governments during 1985-86 under the MoEFCC notification.
    • Recognising the importance of lakes, the Ministry launched NLCP, a centrally sponsored scheme exclusively aimed at restoring the water quality and ecology of lakes in different parts of the country.
    • Under the programme, 115 wetlands were identified, which required urgent conservation and management initiatives.
    • The selection of lakes was on hydrological (Lake size over 10 acres or 3 acres if of religious and cultural importance and lake depth more than three metres), scientific and administrative criteria.
    • The scheme was approved by the Union government during the Ninth Plan (June 2001) as 100 per cent central grant.
    • From 100 per cent central funding, the costs are now shared according to a ratio of 70:30 between the Union and the concerned state government.

    Repair, Renovation and Restoration of Waterbodies’ Scheme

    • In continuation with the NLCP, the Centre had launched this Scheme in 2005,
    • The objectives of the scheme were comprehensive improvement and restoration of traditional waterbodies, including increasing tank storage capacity, ground water recharge, etc.

    National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA)

    • Later, in 2016, the National Lake Conservation Plan was merged with National Wetlands Conservation Programme to form NPCA.
    • The principal objectives of NPCA are holistic conservation and the restoration of lakes and wetlands through an integrated and multidisciplinary approach with a common regulatory framework.
    • All lakes that were a part of NLCP, were brought under this scheme, and are being restored till date.

    Why Urban Lakes still needs more attention?

    • Even after 26 years of pollution abatement works, only ten per cent of waste water generated in the country is treated.
    • The rest collects as cess pools or is discharged into the 14 major, 55 minor and several hundred other rivers.
    • It is quite clear that the overall status of quality of water in rivers, lakes and its links to groundwater has not been adequately addressed.
    • Out of the 43 Indian guidelines passed by the central and state government, 41 per cent of those talk about conservation and restoration of waterbodies but only 10 per cent exactly describe the conservative measure.
    • Only 22 per cent of the guidelines are on subjects related to policies to be adopted by state government, urban local bodies etc.
    • This clearly identifies the missing links and marks the future prospects that India should adopt for the preparation of better and sustainable lake management plans.

    Need for a comprehensive Lake Management Plan

    • ‘Lake management planning’ is an approach for different stakeholders to come together with a common interest in improving and protecting their lake.
    • Focusing on planning process rather than quick-fix solutions makes lake rejuvenation a manageable process.
    • Moreover, it guides how time and resources are utilised, keeping future sustainability of the lake in account.  It includes:
    1. Encourages partnerships between concerned citizens, special interest groups, government body and water resources management practitioners
    2. Identifies the concerns regarding the catchment/watershed of the lake
    3. Sets realistic goals, objectives, and (short, medium and long-term) actions, and identifies needed funds and personnel.

    Conclusion

    • Under the Jal Shakti mission and AMRUT, the revival /rejuvenation of water bodies is in piecemeal approach, with short-term measures like beautification, enhancing recreational activities, addressing immediate solid waste dumping into waterbody etc.
    • Although cities have initiated to work towards water bodies’ rejuvenation, the long-term approach is still missing.

    Way Forward

    • Since a lake is a reflection of its catchment area, it is essential to first understand the significant changes or trends concerning the primary land uses within the catchment area / watershed draining into the lake.
    • There is no approach which defines the planning process for preparation of short, medium and long-term action plans for lake rejuvenation, considering its watershed area.
    • It is essential to have a document with clear understanding of the lake’s watershed area, with specific goals, objectives, producing time-bound action plans.
    • Conservation of Lakes and wetlands through an integrated and multidisciplinary approach with a common regulatory framework should be carried out.

  • Turtle rehab centre in Bhagalpur, Bihar

    A first-of-its-kind rehabilitation centre for freshwater turtles will be inaugurated in Bihar’s Bhagalpur forest division in January 2020.

    About the rehab centre

    • The centre, spread over half a hectare, will be able to shelter 500 turtles at a time.
    • Earlier, rescued turtles were released into rivers without much treatment in the absence of any facility.
    • In the rehab centre they will be properly monitored before being released in their natural habitat.

    Why need such centre?

    • The need to build such a centre was felt after several turtles were found severely wounded and sick when rescued from smuggles by rescue teams.
    • This centre will play a significant role in treating these animals and their proper upkeep before being returned to their natural habitat.

    Why Bhagalpur?

    • Eastern Bihar has been an ideal breeding ground for turtles.
    • In Bhagalpur, the flow of water in the Ganga is ample. Also, there are many sandbanks in the middle of the river, which are ideal breeding ground for turtles.

    Significance of turtles

    • According to environmentalists, the turtles play a significant role in the river by scavenging dead organic materials and diseased fish.
    • They control fish population by their predation and control aquatic plants and weeds.
    • They are also described as indicators of healthy aquatic ecosystems.

    Various threats

    • According to a recent study conducted by Traffic India, around 11,000 turtles are being smuggled in India every year. In the past 10 years, as many as 110,000 turtles have been traded.
    • These species are now under severe threats due to habitat fragmentation and loss through dams and barrages, pollution, illegal poaching, accidental drowning through fishing nets and threats to their nesting habitats etc.
    • The turtles have come under serious threat primarily for two reasons — food and the flourishing pet trade.
    • Turtles are being frequently targeted for meat due to the prevailing belief that it gives an energy boost and keeps various diseases away.

    Back2Basics

    Operation Save Kurma

    • It is a periodic species specific operation on turtles conducted by Wildlife Crimes Control Bureau since 2017.
    • Under this, a total of 15,739 live turtles were recovered from 45 suspects, having inter-state linkages.
    • It helped the enforcement agencies to focus on the existing trade routes and major trade hubs in the country, which will be continued in future.

  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

  • Earth Overshoot

  • Environmental Laws of India

    To understand international treaties related to environment and climate change, funding etc including national action plan on climate change read these blogs first

    1. Primer on Environmental issues
    2. Rio To Paris via Kyoto

    1. Indian Forest Act, 1927

    • Britishers enacted such acts in 1865 and 1876 also, purpose was to monopolize forest resources <esp. timber> for their own exploitation and depriving forest dwellers of their rights
    • It was finally corrected when forest rights act, 2006 was enacted which gave traditional dwellers and community various rights over forest and gram sabha became the ultimate authority <remember Niyamgiri and POSCO>
    • The act does not even define the Forest or Forest Land but define forest produce

    Act establishes 3 categories of forest

    1. Reserve Forest – Most restricted, constituted by state govt on govt property
    2. Protected Forest –
    3. Village Forest –

    2. Prevention of Cruelty to Animal Act (PCA), 1960

    • prevent the infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering on animals
    • Animal Board of India was constituted under this act
    • Supreme court banned Jallikattu under it which govt tried to revive by a notification but court refused to vacate the stay

    Read the whole story -Jallikattu : Culture v/s cruelty to animals debate here 

    3. Wild Life Protection Act, 1972

    • protection of wildlife i.e animals, birds and plants <yes plants>
    • It has 6 schedules with schedule 1 and part 2 of schedule 2 providing maximum absolute protection
    • Schedule 5 animals can be hunted <vermins?>
    • Schedule 6 plants are prohibited from cultivation and planting
    • National Board for wildlife and National Tiger conservation authority are constituted under this act <function of both recommendation, providing guidelines etc.>
    • National Parks sanctuaries, conservation reserves, community reserves, marine reserves etc are constituted under this act <what’s the difference b/w community and conservation reserve? What is a sacred grove?>
    1. Note – state govt constitute all protected areas including national park
    2. Note – differences b/s national park, sanctuary and biosphere reserves done in earlier titbits, click here to read

     

    4. Forest Conservation Act, 1980

    As the name suggests to conserve forests <4 objectives>

    1. restricting the use of forest land for non-forest purposes
    2. preventing the de-reservation of forests that have been reserved
    3. restrict leasing of forest land to private individuals, authority, corporations not owned by the Government
    4. prevent clear felling of naturally grown trees.

    You need permission to use forest land for non forest purposes <one of the requirement for EIA><btw what permissions are needed to build a factory on a forest land>

    5. Environment Protection Act, 1986

    • Was enacted in the wake of Bhopal gas tragedy under article 253 of constitution <what is article 253, number is not important but content of article very important>
    • Implements agenda of UN conference on human environment
    • regulate environmental pollution, laying down procedures and standards for industrial waste, emissions, hazardous waste
    • Environment Protection Authority, ecosensitive zones under this act <what is ESZ?>

    6. Biological Diversity Act, 2002

    • To implement agenda of CBD
    • sets up National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Board (SBB) and Biodiversity Management Committees <local level and maintains people’s biodiversity register> <PM is not chairperson of NBA>
    • has provisions for notifying heritage sites by State Government in consultation with local body <see everything related to environment  is notified by state govt>

    Note – Provisions of CBD, protocols and functions of various authorities have been discussed in titbits  and blog 

    Acts Related to Pollution –

    Water (prevention and Control of Pollution) act, 1974

    • Creates central board and a state board, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and SPCB
    • Water polluted from industrial waste was the main target

    Air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981

    • To implement the decision of UN conference on Human environment
    • This act also covers noise pollution
    • Same CPCB and SPCB implements this act

    Environmental Policies

    National Forest Policy, 1988

    • Earlier forest policy of 1894, 1952
    • aim at a coverage of one-third of the total land area under forest and tree cover (2/3 in hilly and mountainous areas to prevent soil erosion and degradation)

    National Environment Policy, 2006

    • Art 21, right to healthy environment
    • Art 48- state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country (DPSP)
    • Art 51 A – duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures

    Principle underlying the policy

    • Polluter Pay Principle – Internalize the externalities <what does that mean>
    • Policy adopts civil liability not criminal liability for environmental damage
    • Doctrine of Public Trust – state is not owner of natural resources but keep them in trust of citizens

    Wild Life Protection act and Vermin

    Vermin means nuisance animals which attack crops, cattle, property and humans  What the act says –

    • States can send a list of wild animals to the Centre requesting it to declare them vermin for selective slaughter.
    • The Central Government may by notification, declare any wild animal other than those specified in Schedule I and part 11 of Schedule 2 of the law to be vermin for any area <not all area> for a given period of time <not all time>
    • As long as the notification is in force such wild animal shall be included in Schedule V of the law, depriving them of any protection under that law <we discussed schedules above>

    Controversy – central govt has allowed culling of Nilgai <largest Indian Antelope and Indigenous to India>  and Rhesus Monkey and Maneka Gandhi is furious

    They are not endangered animals by any means <IUCN least concern category> but you know Maneka

    P.S. – Did I miss any important act or Policy? Do let us know in comments. Any factoid/ trivia or important point related to act ? mention in comments

  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    Also Read: Evolution of Forest Rights in India from 1856 to 2006 | In Depth Analysis of FRA & Its Issues

    The environment ministry came out with a draft National Forest Policy (NFP). The policy has been prepared by the Bhopal-based Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) and is aimed at facilitating ecologically responsible behaviour among stakeholders.

    source

    The proposed NFP is going to be third such document after India’s independence with first in 1952 followed by the second in 1988.

    Why is there a need for Forest Policy?

    • Forests and trees constitute nearly one fourth of the geographic area of the country.
    • Protection of this vast and valuable resource, improving and increasing the forest and tree cover requires adequate investment keeping in view the pressures on these forests, and the ecosystem services that they provide to the nation.
    • Large tracts of forest area in the country have degraded due to immense biotic pressure and lack of adequate investment.
    • The crux of the problem in India’s existing forest policy — the Forest Policy of 1988 — has been that it made the forest department the manager of the forests and the people lost their rights over it.
    • But as the Uttarakhand forest fires showed recently, a few hundred forest officials and a few thousand employees of the department can do nothing when a calamity strikes. They need community support in such emergencies.

    Key highlights

    • Less forest on hilly areas: Although the policy continues with the national goal of maintaining a minimum of one-third of the geographical area under forest or tree cover, Hills and mountainous regions may not be required to maintain two-thirds of the geographical area under forest cover.
    • Board to monitor management of forests: The policy states that a National Board of Forestry and State Boards of Forestry are to be established to ensure monitoring of the spread of the forest areas and management of forest cover.
    • Technology to minimize damage to forests: The policy states that forest land diversion projects related to mining, quarrying, construction of dams, roads and other linear infrastructure need to adopt special caution. Use of state-of-the-art technology which causes minimum pollution and damage should be promoted.
    • Green tax on citizens: The draft National Forest Policy (NFP) proposes the levy of a green tax for facilitating ecologically responsible behaviour and supplementing financial resources essential to address forestry woes.
    • Undermines FRA 2006: NFP ignores Forests Rights Act, 2006, which empowers local gram panchayats, especially in tribal areas close to India’s forests, and proposes a joint forest management-like mechanism to enhance agro-forestry.
    • New Mission: The policy proposes to launch a new Community Forest Management Mission, bringing government, community and private land under the new proposed management system.
    • Provisions for responsible tourism: It calls for developing “sound ecotourism models” with the focus on conservation while supplementing the livelihood needs of local communities.
    • Climate change to emerge as important factor in policy: It states that Climate change concerns should be effectively factored into all the forest and wildlife areas management plans and community ecosystem management plans.
    • Purchase of wildlife corridors: The draft policy indicates that CAMPA funds from diversion of forest land by industry are to be used for purchasing wildlife corridors from people.
    • Maintaining Urban forest: The policy also asks for management plans for city forests, parks, garden and woodlands to nurture and sustain urban health, clean air and related benefits.
    • Supports the Government Vermin Policy: In a nod to the Union government’s controversial decision to declare certain animals as “vermin” and implicitly sanctioning the slaughter of nilgai, wild pigs and monkeys in certain States, the forest policy recommends mitigating human-wildlife conflicts by taking up habitat enrichment, providing adequate and timely compensation in case of injury or loss of human life, property, crop damage or livestock casualties and developing teams of well-equipped and trained forest personnel.

    Significance of the policy

    • The policy recommendation for the launch of a national forest streams revival programme in a mission mode to tackle intensifying water crisis in India in the last few decades is a good step.
    • The levy of a green tax for facilitating ecologically responsible behaviour, supplementing financial resources essential to address forestry woes will act as a step to mitigate the effects of pollution.
    • Besides specifying how to manage forests, the draft policy said, “Other ecosystems such as alpine meadows, grasslands, deserts, marine and coastal areas should be protected and managed as well” and this will help to make it comprehensive.
    • It calls for developing sound ecotourism models with the focus on conservation while supplementing the livelihood needs of local communities which is a commendable move.

    Criticism of the policy

    • NFP ignores Forests Rights Act, 2006, which empowers local gram panchayats, especially in tribal areas close to India’s forests, and proposes a joint forest management-like mechanism to enhance agro-forestry. This move will bring back the forest department as the final authority over using forest resources instead of forest dwellers and communities dependent on them.

    Way forward

    • After facing much criticism from the Civil society the centre has withdrawn the draft policy recently. The criticism is not misplaced as the draft policy proposes to dilute the Forests Rights Act (FRA), do away with requirement of having two-third geographical area of mountainous and hill regions under forests, and for allowing industry to have commercial plantations on the forest land , increase the power of the forest bureaucracy and keep local communities out of the decision-making process.
    • While devising a new policy, the ministry must not only focus on increasing the forest area and bettering the quality of the forests but also ensure that the connection between forest-dependent communities and forests is not lost.

    References:

  • Funding Mechanism for Climate Control Worldwide & in India

    We are continuing our discussion from the previous post on UNFCC to Paris Via Kyoto

    In the meantime many a funds were launched –

    1. Green Climate Fund –

    • HQ at Incheon, S. Korea
    • It was 1st talked about in Copenhagen summit and Formally established in Cancun, 2010
    • Target is to raise 100b$ fund every year by 2020 <largest fund with current pledges amounting in excess of 10b$>
    • India’s contention is that funds should be additional <no double counting>, verifiable and mainly in the form of grants
    • There should be balanced support to both adaptation and mitigation

    2. Clean Technology Fund (CTF)- 2nd largest

    3. Adaptation fund –

    • Officially launched in 2007 (Bali), though 1st established in 2001
    • Fund sources – 2% of CERs of CDM, donations from developed countries
    • Direct access mechanism – accredited national implementing entities (NIEs) and regional implementing agencies (RIEs) in developing countries can directly access climate adaptation financing under it <Name our NIE>

    4. Global Environment Facility (GEF) –

    • Established in 1991 by the World Bank in consultation with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
    • To  provide funding to protect the global environment <discussed in detail in titbits>

     

    Funding initiatives of India

    1. National Clean Energy Fund –

    • From cess on the coal produced or imported <cess is 200 rs now per ton of coal, increased from 50 to 100 to 200>
    • financing and promoting clean energy initiatives and funding research in the area of clean energy Eg.-  green energy corridor, installation of solar photovoltaic etc

    2. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change –

    To assist in meeting the cost of national- and state-level adaptation measures in areas that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.

    India’s initiatives 

    INDCs , Renewable energy targets

    National and State Action Plan On Climate change

    8 missions

    1.  NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION – Target has been revised to 100,000 MW by 2022 <what is the break up?>

    2. THE NATIONAL MISSION FOR ENHANCED ENERGY EFFICIENCY (NMEEE):-

    • Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT)
    • Framework for energy efficient economic development
    • Star rating of appliances

    NATIONAL MISSION ON SUSTAINABLE HABITAT –

    • Energy efficiency in buildings, urban planning, improved management of solid and liquid waste, modal shift towards public transport
    • Improving resilience of infrastructure, community based disaster management

    4. NATIONAL WATERMISSION (NWM)

    • Increase in water use efficiency by 20% through regulatory mechanisms with differential entitlements and pricing
    • Minimization of wastage and equitable distribution both across and within states

    5.  NATIONAL   MISSION   FOR SUSTAINING THE HIMALAYAN ECOSYSTEM (NMSHE)

    6. NATIONAL MISSION FOR GREEN INDIA

    • Increase forest/tree cover on 5 million hectares (ha) of forest/non- forest -lands
    • Improve quality of forest cover on another 5 million ha of non-forest/forest lands (a total of 10 million ha)
    • Improve ecosystem services including biodiversity, hydrological services, and carbon sequestration from the 10 million ha of forest/ non-forest lands mentioned above

     7. NATIONAL   MISSION   FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (NMSA)

    10 key dimensions for adaptation and mitigation:

    1. Improved Crop Seeds, Livestock and Fish Culture
    2. Water Efficiency
    3. Pest Management
    4. Improved Farm Practices
    5. Nutrient Management
    6. Agricultural Insurance
    7. Credit Support
    8. Markets
    9. Access to Information
    10. Livelihood Diversification

    8. The National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC)

    National Bio-Energy Mission – <is this the 9th mission?, earlier there was talk of clean coal energy being added as the 9th mission>

    • Launched during the 12th Five-Year Plan
    • To boost power generation from biomass, a renewable energy source abundantly available in India
    • To facilitate large-scale capital investments in biomass-fired power stations
    • encourage development of rural enterprises
    • A GIS-based National Biomass Resource Atlas to map potential biomass regions in the country

    India is to add 4 new missions to this list

    1. Wind Mission – modeled on the National Solar Mission
    2. Waste-to-energy mission –  harnessing energy from all kinds of waste, aimed at lowering India’s dependence on coal, oil and gas, for power production.
    3. Mission on dealing with climate impacts on human health – by health ministry
    4. Mission on India’s coastal areas – prepare an integrated coastal resource management plan and map vulnerabilities along the entire nearly 7000-km long shoreline

    Renewable energy initiatives and targets have already been done here

    This also completes Chapter 8 of economic survey

    In the next article we will discuss Ozone depletion, Montreal Protocol, India’s Changed Stand on HFCs, Air Pollution, Acid Rain, Smog, Petrochemical smog etc.

  • e-Waste Management

  • What do we mean by a drought and what are the relief measures taken?

    Various parts of the country are reeling under a severe drought. Various ministries of the Government of India have initiated relief measures in drought prone areas. But when is a drought declared in any part of the country? What are the different parameters that are taken into account?

     

    What is Drought?

    There is no universally accepted standard definition of drought because of its varying characteristics and impacts across different regions. According to the ‘Drought Management Manual’ released by the Ministry of Agriculture, drought is a recurrent feature of climate and occurs in all climatic regimes. Conditions of drought appear when the rainfall is deficient in comparison to the statistical multi-year average for a region, over an extended period of a season or year, or even more.
    Unlike other natural disasters, drought is different in the sense that
    • It is difficult to determine the beginning and end of the event
    • Duration may range from months to years
    • No single indicator or index can identify precisely the onset and severity and its potential impacts
    • Multiple indicators are usually more effective
    • Spatial extent is usually much greater than that for other natural hazards
    • Impacts are generally non-structural and difficult to quantify
    • Impacts are cumulative and the effects magnify when events continue from one season to the next

    Impacts of Drought

    There are many adverse direct and indirect impacts of drought. The impacts could be broadly categorized into Economic, Environmental & Social.
    Economic: Economic impacts of drought include production losses in agriculture and other related sectors. It causes loss of income resulting in reduction of purchasing power especially among those dependent on agriculture and living in the rural areas. It also has a multiplier effect on other sectors dependent on agriculture for raw material.
    Environmental: Decreased water levels in reservoirs, canals, ponds are the primary environmental impacts. This will lead to decreased availability of drinking water and water for other needs. It will also cause loss of forest cover etc.
    Social: Migration of population is the top most social impact resulting out of lack of income. Decrease of income also leads to people withdrawing children from schools, postponement of marriages, sale of assets etc. It will also lead to inadequate food leading to malnutrition and other health hazards.

    When is a drought declared?

    The four indicators viz., rainfall deficiency, the extent of area sown, normalized difference vegetation index and moisture adequacy index are usually applied in combination for drought declaration. The information on these indicators is available at the level of Taluka / Tehsil / Block. Drought may be declared by the State Government at these levels.
    Rainfall Deficiency: Rainfall is the most important indicator of drought. A departure in rainfall from its long-term averages is taken as the basis for drought declaration. The departure could be either measured for specific months or an entire season. Rainfall data are easily available and simple to apply. The rainfall data can be applied in two ways
    • The State Government could consider declaring a drought if the total rainfall received during the months of June and July is less than 50% of the average rainfall for these two months and there is an adverse impact on vegetation and soil moisture
    • The State Government could consider declaring a drought if the total rainfall for the entire duration of the rainy season of the state, from June to September (the south-west monsoon) and/or from December to March (north-east monsoon), is less than 75% of the average rainfall for the season and there is an adverse impact on vegetation and soil moisture
    Area under Sowing: Sowing is another important indicator of the spread and severity of drought. Drought conditions could be said to exist if along with the other indicators, the total area sown by the end of July/August is less than 50% of the total cultivable area. In case of Rabi crops, the declaration of drought could be linked to the area of sowing being less than 50% of the total cultivable area by the end of November/December along with the other indicators.
    Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI): The National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System (NADAMS), instituted by the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), issues a bi-weekly drought bulletin and monthly reports on detailed crop and seasonal condition during the kharif season. These present the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Wetness Index (NDWI). These reports provide quantitative information on sowings, surface water spread and District / Tehsil / Taluk /Block level crop condition assessment along with spatial variation in terms of maps. At present, 12 agriculturally important and drought-vulnerable States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh are covered through these reports.
    Moisture Adequacy Index (MAI): Moisture Adequacy Index (MAI) is based on a calculation of weekly water balance, is equal to the ratio (expressed as a percentage) of Actual Evapo Transpiration (AET) to the Potential Evapo Transpiration (PET) following a soil–water balancing approach during a cropping season.
    Certain other factors are also taken into consideration before declaration of drought.

    15 drought years in India since Independence

    Since independence, there have been 15 drought years, from 1951 to 2002, in 1951, 1952, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1971, 1972, 1974, 1979, 1982, 1985, 1986, 1987 and 2002. The frequency of droughts has varied with 2 drought years in the 1950s and four in the 1960s. The 1970s and 1980s also had four drought years each. The 1990s did not see a single drought year. The next drought again was in 2002.
    The 1987 drought was the worst drought after independence affecting 59–60% of the crop area and a population of 285 million. In 2002 too, over 300 million people spread over 18 States were affected by drought in varying degrees. Around 150 million cattle were affected due to lack of fodder and water. Food grains production registered the steepest fall of 29 million tonnes. No other drought in the past had caused reduction in food grain production to this extent.

    What are the Relief Measures taken?

    Various ministries of the Government of India viz., Agriculture, Rural Development, Drinking Water, Animal Husbandry, Food & Public Distribution, Water Resources, Home Affairs, Finance and Railways are involved in planning and implementing the relief measures.The state governments submit reports on drought condition with all the relevant information and the government of India extends support based on these reports. The various relief measures include financial assistance to states, contingency crop planning, relief employment, food security and initiatives to mitigate the impacts.
    This article originally appeared at Saddahaq