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Subject: Science and Technology

  • What psychiatric genetics can and cannot tell an Indian family

    Why in the news?

    Families of patients with psychiatric illness increasingly ask whether the condition is in their blood and whether a genetic test can settle their child’s future. There is a tension between the real progress of psychiatric genetics and its limited power to predict individual outcomes, especially for Indian populations underrepresented in genomic databases. The central point is that genes load the dice but do not determine destiny.

    What is a genome-wide association study (GWAS)?

    1. About: A GWAS compares millions of common genetic variants across very large groups of people with and without a condition, to find variants that appear more often in one group. . It compares DNA markers, most often single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, between individuals with a condition and healthy control groups.
    2. What it yields: It behaves like a satellite map highlighting genomic areas of interest, showing where to look for biological mechanisms rather than pinpointing a cause.

    What does polygenic risk mean?

    1. About: In common psychiatric disorders no single gene variant has a large effect, unlike single-gene diseases such as Tay-Sachs disease or Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
    2. Mechanism: Risk is polygenic, emerging from the combined influence of thousands of variants together with rare genetic changes, development, environment, and chance.

    What is a polygenic risk score?

    1. About: A polygenic risk score (PRS) compresses many small genetic effects into a single number meant to estimate a person’s inherited susceptibility.
    2. Limits: It cannot say whether a person will become ill, at what age, how severe it will be, or which medicine will work, because it captures only part of genetic liability.

    How Polygenic Risk Works

    1. Many small changes: Instead of one major gene causing an illness (like in cystic fibrosis), polygenic conditions involve hundreds or thousands of tiny DNA changes called single nucleotide polymorphisms
    2. Adding it up: Each individual variant adds or subtracts a tiny amount of risk; a PRS totals these up to estimate your overall genetic predisposition.
    3. Common conditions: It applies to complex diseases like heart disease, type 2 diabetes, schizophrenia, and certain common cancers

    What have the major GWAS findings shown?

    1. Schizophrenia: A 2022 landmark study identified associations at 287 genomic regions and pointed to genes active in neurons and synapses.
    2. Bipolar disorder: A large 2021 study identified 64 associated regions.
    3. Regulatory signals: Many signals lie in DNA that regulates when and where genes switch on, not in stretches that directly encode a protein.
    4. Shared risk: A December 2025 study in Nature reported that some inherited risk is shared across schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

    Why is prediction unreliable, especially in India?

    1. Score does not contain life: A person with a higher score may remain well while a person with a lower score may fall ill, because the score does not contain childhood adversity, sleep disruption, substance use, medical illness, or access to care.
    2. Expert caution: The International Society of Psychiatric Genetics has cautioned that current scores for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression are not accurate enough for routine clinical prediction.
    3. Ancestry bias: Genomic databases have drawn disproportionately from people of European ancestry, so scores are often less accurate in other populations.
    4. Indian diversity: The GenomeIndia project generated whole-genome data from 10,000 healthy, unrelated Indians across 83 population groups and documented extraordinary genetic diversity, so a score developed elsewhere cannot simply be imported.

    What can genetics usefully change in the clinic today?

    1. Reduces blame: A mother did not cause schizophrenia by being too strict and a father did not transmit bipolar disorder through a moral failing, and biology matters.
    2. Avoids fatalism: Genetic vulnerability should not be converted into a verdict, and no test can declare a person safe or doomed.
    3. Focus on modifiable risk: The useful approach is to track early warning signs, avoid intoxicants, sleep well, seek help promptly, and focus on recovery.
    4. Visible risks: Many risks are visible without sequencing, such as lost sleep before a manic episode, escalating cannabis use, treatment stopped due to stigma, and distance from specialist care.

    Conclusion

    The central idea is that psychiatric genetics will not identify people before they fall ill, but it can replace superstition and blame with a more accurate account of vulnerability. Prediction will remain probabilistic even as datasets grow larger and more representative. The task is to keep probabilities from being misunderstood, stigmatised, or commercialised, and to involve diverse populations while protecting privacy.

    Back2Basics:

    GenomeIndia Project

    1. Convening body: Funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India.
    2. Aim: To build a catalogue of the genetic diversity of the Indian population.
    3. Scale: Generated whole-genome data from 10,000 healthy, unrelated Indians across 83 population groups.
    4. Significance: Provides an India-specific reference against which imported genetic risk scores can be tested rather than assumed to apply.

    Genomics in India: About

    1. Definition: Genomics studies the complete set of an organism’s DNA, including how variants relate to disease.
    2. Diversity: India’s population carries extraordinary genetic diversity across many groups, making a single national reference essential.
    3. Clinical caution: Risk scores derived from European-ancestry datasets can mislead when applied to Indian populations.

    Challenges in Psychiatric Genetics

    1. Weak prediction: Scores cannot forecast onset, severity, or treatment response for an individual.
    2. Ancestry gaps: European-dominated databases reduce accuracy elsewhere.
    3. Commercial overreach: Enthusiasm of commerce can outrun the science.
    4. Privacy risk: Genomic data raises serious privacy and consent concerns.
    5. Stigma: Misread probabilities can label people as patients-in-waiting.

    Way Forward

    1. Diversify datasets: Include diverse populations in genomic research.
    2. Community involvement: Involve clinicians and communities in deciding how data are used.
    3. Protect privacy: Enforce strong safeguards on genomic data.
    4. Integrate data: Combine genetic findings with developmental, clinical, and environmental information.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2026] Which of the following statements with regard to Genome India Project is/are correct?

    1. It is a part of the Human Genome Project.

    2. The project is funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India.

    3. Its primary aim is to build a catalogue of genetic diversity of the Indian population.

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 2 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • NASA invites ISRO to join its mission for lunar outpost

    Why in the News:

    The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has invited the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to join its Moon Base programme, the effort to return humans to the Moon and set up a permanent settlement near the lunar South Pole. The invitation was extended at the ninth meeting of the India and United States Civil Space Joint Working Group, deepening a partnership that already spans the Artemis Accords and a joint radar satellite.

    What was announced and what is the Moon Base programme?

    1. The invitation: NASA invited ISRO to join its Moon Base programme, building on the two countries’ partnership under the Artemis Accords.
    2. The venue: The offer was made at the ninth meeting of the India and United States Civil Space Joint Working Group, held in Bengaluru on 5 and 6 August.
    3. The programme: The Moon Base programme aims to establish humanity’s first outpost on another celestial body, near the South Pole of the Moon.
    4. Wider setting: The meeting advanced civil and commercial space cooperation under a strategic technology initiative aligned with the February 2025 Joint Leaders’ Statement.

    What are the Artemis Accords?

    1. Definition: The Artemis Accords are a United States led set of non binding principles to govern the peaceful civil exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon.
    2. India’s role: India signed the Accords in 2023 as the 27th country, and a total of 70 countries are now part of them.
    3. Relevance: The Moon Base invitation and agreed open scientific data sharing are being pursued under this framework.

    What deepening ties does the invitation reflect?

    1. NISAR mission: The two agencies last year launched the NASA and ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission, a dual frequency radar satellite and a first of its kind joint venture.
    2. Human spaceflight: An Indian astronaut flew to the International Space Station in 2025 through an Axiom mission, a result of a strategic framework for human spaceflight cooperation.
    3. Data cooperation: Both sides agreed to advance open scientific data sharing and discussed joint missions to the Moon and beyond.
    4. Outer space governance: They reaffirmed commitment to United Nations guidelines on the long term sustainability of outer space activities.

    What are India’s own lunar and human spaceflight programmes?

    1. Gaganyaan: ISRO is pursuing its human spaceflight programme to send Indian astronauts to low Earth orbit.
    2. Moon landing target: India has stated plans to achieve a human landing on the Moon by 2040.
    3. Chandrayaan legacy: India’s earlier lunar missions established its capability, including a South Pole region landing.
    4. Complementary strengths: NISAR’s success is seen as a base for more complex joint missions, including the lunar base and human spaceflight.

    Back2Basics: NISAR Mission

    1. Full form: NASA and ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar mission.
    2. Nature: A joint Earth observation satellite using dual frequency radar, a first of its kind.
    3. Purpose: Monitors changes in land surface, ice sheets, ecosystems and natural hazards.
    4. Significance: Regarded as a landmark joint venture that could enable more complex India and United States space missions.

    Government Initiatives / Programmes in Indian Space

    1. Gaganyaan: India’s human spaceflight programme to send astronauts to low Earth orbit.
    2. Chandrayaan Programme: Series of lunar missions advancing India’s Moon exploration.
    3. IN-SPACe: Regulator and promoter enabling private sector participation in space.
    4. Indian Space Policy 2023: Framework opening the sector to non governmental entities.

    Key Facts about India and Global Space Cooperation

    1. Artemis signatory: India was the 27th country to sign the Artemis Accords in 2023, now numbering 70 countries.
    2. Working group: The invitation came at the ninth India and United States Civil Space Joint Working Group in Bengaluru.
    3. Moon landing goal: India targets a human landing on the Moon by 2040.
    4. South Pole focus: The Moon Base aims for humanity’s first outpost near the lunar South Pole.

    “[2016] Consider the following statements: The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

    1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission

    2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA

    3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Govt extends PM E-DRIVE scheme timeline, sop halved

    Why in the news?

    The Centre has extended the PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE) Scheme for electric two wheelers till 31 March 2028 and halved the per unit incentive to Rs 2,500 per kilowatt hour from Rs 5,000 earlier. The move signals a planned tapering of demand support as electric two wheeler costs fall and the market matures.

    What is the PM E-DRIVE Scheme?

    1. What it is: PM E-DRIVE is the central scheme providing demand incentives and support infrastructure for electric mobility, administered by the Ministry of Heavy Industries. It succeeds the earlier FAME programme as the main demand side push for electric vehicles.
    2. Outlay and duration: It carries an outlay of Rs 11,900 crore and is implemented from 1 April 2024 till 31 March 2028.
    3. Two wheeler support: For electric two wheelers, the scheme sets a total fund support of Rs 2,767 crore from the Ministry of Heavy Industries.

    What has changed?

    1. Timeline extended: The electric two wheeler segment has been extended till 31 March 2028.
    2. Incentive halved: The per unit incentive is cut to Rs 2,500 per kilowatt hour from Rs 5,000 per kilowatt hour earlier.
    3. Per vehicle cap lowered: The incentive is capped at Rs 5,000 per vehicle, down from Rs 10,000 per vehicle in FY 2024-25.
    4. Eligibility window: Registered electric two wheelers can avail the Rs 2,500 per kilowatt hour incentive for the period between 1 April 2025 and 31 March 2028.
    5. Price ceiling: The maximum ex factory price for an electric two wheeler to qualify is Rs 1.5 lakh.
    6. Lower of two limits: The incentive is limited to the specified cap or 15 per cent of the ex factory price of the electric two or three wheeler, whichever is lower, and is subject to periodic review as vehicle costs fall.

    Back2Basics: PM E-DRIVE Scheme

    1. Ministry: Ministry of Heavy Industries.
    2. Launch year: 2024, implemented from 1 April 2024 to 31 March 2028.
    3. Outlay: Rs 11,900 crore.
    4. Aim: Accelerate adoption of electric vehicles and build charging and testing infrastructure.
    5. Beneficiaries: Buyers of electric two, three, and heavier vehicles, state transport undertakings, and charging infrastructure providers.

    Government Initiatives for Electric Mobility

    1. FAME India (Phase I and II): Earlier demand incentive scheme for electric and hybrid vehicles.
    2. PLI Auto Scheme: Production Linked Incentive for advanced automotive technology products.
    3. PLI ACC Battery Scheme: Incentive for domestic advanced chemistry cell battery manufacturing.
    4. Vehicle Scrappage Policy: Phasing out unfit vehicles to spur cleaner replacements.
    5. e-AMRIT portal: A one stop information platform on electric vehicles.

    Key Facts about PM E-DRIVE

    1. Successor scheme: PM E-DRIVE succeeds FAME II as the flagship electric mobility scheme.
    2. Incentive metric: Support is calculated per kilowatt hour of battery capacity.
    3. Segment coverage: Covers electric two wheelers, three wheelers, buses, trucks, and ambulances, plus charging infrastructure.

    Challenges to Electric Vehicle Adoption

    1. Charging infrastructure gap: Public charging networks remain thin outside major cities.
    2. Battery import dependence: Reliance on imported cells and critical minerals raises cost and supply risk.
    3. High upfront cost: Purchase prices stay above comparable petrol vehicles despite incentives.
    4. Range and grid strain: Range anxiety and grid readiness limit uptake in some segments.
    5. Recycling burden: End of life battery disposal needs robust recycling systems.
    6. Incentive dependence: Demand remains sensitive to the level and continuity of subsidies.

    “[2023, GS3, 15 marks] The adoption of electric vehicles is rapidly growing worldwide. How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?”

    [2025] With reference to India, consider the following pairs: Organization Union Ministry
    1. The National Automotive BoardMinistry of Commerce and Industry
    2. The Coir BoardMinistry of Heavy Industries
    3. The National Centre for Trade
    InformationMinistry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
    How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

    [A] Only one

    [B] Only two

    [C] All the three

    [D] None

  • The missing ‘reuse’ principle in India’s EV transition journey

    Why in the News?

    India’s electric mobility transition is gathering momentum as adoption rises and circular economy principles enter industrial policy. India’s policy has advanced the recycling tier of circularity through scrappage but neglected the higher priority reuse tier, exposing a gap where structurally sound vehicles are scrapped rather than retrofitted.

    What is the circular economy hierarchy?

    1. Definition: The circular economy is built on a hierarchy that prioritises reducing resource consumption, then reusing existing assets, and only recycling materials once products have genuinely reached the end of their useful life.
    2. Reuse versus recycle: Recycling recovers materials after a product becomes waste, while reuse preserves functionality before the asset becomes waste. Reuse sits higher in the hierarchy.

    What is vehicle retrofitment?

    1. What it is: Retrofitment replaces the internal combustion engine, fuel system, and related components of an existing vehicle with an electric powertrain, while retaining the core vehicle structure.
    2. Why it counts as reuse: By keeping a structurally sound chassis and body in service, it preserves and extends the value already embedded in the asset rather than recovering value only after the vehicle becomes waste.

    How far has India progressed on recycling?

    1. Rules framework: The Motor Vehicles (Registration and Functions of Vehicle Scrapping Facility) Rules, 2021, and the Environment Protection (End of Life Vehicles) Rules, 2025, strengthened responsible vehicle recycling and material recovery.
    2. Facilities on ground: As of January 2026, 129 Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities were operational across 21 States and Union Territories.
    3. Vehicles processed: About 4.3 lakh vehicles had been processed through these facilities, building a formal ecosystem for recycling and resource recovery.

    Why does retrofitment matter?

    1. Per vehicle waste: A single two wheeler generates approximately 90 kilograms of recyclable material and 18 kilograms of landfill waste when scrapped.
    2. Fleet scale burden: Scaled across India’s fleet of about 30 crore vehicles, a scrap first approach would generate 2.7 crore tonnes of recyclable material and 0.54 crore tonnes of landfill waste.
    3. SDG alignment: Retrofitment supports United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12 on responsible consumption and production by reducing material demand and waste.
    4. Old but sound: A vehicle can be old yet retain a strong chassis, intact body, and years of service life, making retrofitting more circular than scrapping.

    What is the three pathway vehicle hierarchy?

    1. First pathway, continued use: Vehicles that remain safe, compliant, and efficient should keep operating with routine maintenance, since age alone should not trigger removal.
    2. Second pathway, retrofitment: Vehicles with sound structure but ageing or polluting powertrains can be converted to electric through certified processes, extending life while cutting emissions.
    3. Third pathway, scrappage: Vehicles with compromised safety, severe structural degradation, accident damage, or significant corrosion proceed to scrappage and recycling.

    The missing middle path

    1. Not a competition: Retrofitment is not a competing strategy to scrappage but the missing middle path that policy has not focused on yet.
    2. Condition over age: Treating every ageing vehicle as a disposal candidate overlooks the chance to extend asset life while accelerating electrification.
    3. Public acceptance: A condition assessed transition would make scrappage more acceptable, as citizens would see that older vehicles are assessed for transformation rather than dismissed indiscriminately.

    What are the challenges to a reuse led EV transition?

    1. Certification gap: Retrofitment needs robust certified conversion technology and testing standards to ensure safety.
    2. Cost and financing: Conversion costs can rival buying a new two wheeler, limiting uptake without incentives.
    3. Battery supply dependence: Electric powertrains depend on imported cells and critical minerals, a supply chain vulnerability.
    4. Policy bias toward scrappage: Existing incentives favour scrappage and new vehicle purchase, leaving reuse unsupported.
    5. Skilled workforce shortage: A trained network of certified retrofit workshops is largely absent at scale.
    6. End of life battery waste: Retrofitted vehicles eventually generate battery waste requiring recycling infrastructure.

    Conclusion

    India’s transport transition is a question of resource efficiency, not a contest between new electric vehicles and older ones. Adopting an age assessed pathway that distinguishes continued use, retrofitment, and scrappage would align the transition with genuine circular economy principles. This would prevent waste before it is created and confine recycling to vehicles that have truly reached the end of their useful life.

    What is Circular Economy? (Foundational Context)

    1. About: A circular economy keeps materials and products in use for as long as possible, extracting maximum value before recovery and regeneration, in contrast to the linear take, make, dispose model.
    2. Rationale: It exists to cut resource extraction, greenhouse gas emissions, and waste while sustaining economic value.
    3. Named hierarchy: It rests on reduce, reuse, and recycle in that order of priority, with reduce and reuse ranked above recycling.

    Key Concerns Regarding the Circular Economy

    1. Recycling bias: Policy attention concentrates on recycling while the higher value reduce and reuse tiers are neglected.
    2. Informal sector dominance: Much recycling occurs in the informal sector with poor environmental and safety standards.
    3. Extended producer responsibility gaps: Enforcement of producer take back obligations remains weak.
    4. Data deficits: Weak material flow data limits measurement of circularity outcomes.

    Back2Basics: Sustainable Development Goal 12

    1. What it is: SDG 12 is the goal on responsible consumption and production within the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
    2. Adopted: It was adopted by United Nations member states in 2015.
    3. Focus: It targets sustainable consumption patterns, resource efficiency, and reduced waste generation.
    4. Relevance: Vehicle retrofitment directly advances its call for better resource efficiency and reduced waste.

    Government Initiatives for EVs and Circularity

    1. PM E-DRIVE Scheme: Provides demand incentives for electric two and three wheelers and other electric vehicles.
    2. FAME India Scheme: Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles, supporting demand and charging infrastructure.
    3. Vehicle Scrappage Policy: Encourages phasing out of unfit and polluting vehicles through registered scrapping facilities.
    4. Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022: Mandate extended producer responsibility for battery recycling.
    5. PLI schemes: Production Linked Incentives for advanced chemistry cell batteries and automobiles.

    Way Forward

    1. National vehicle hierarchy: Adopt a framework treating vehicles by condition rather than age alone.
    2. Certified retrofit ecosystem: Standardise conversion technology and expand certified workshops.
    3. Incentivise reuse: Extend fiscal support to retrofitment on par with scrappage and new purchase.
    4. Strengthen battery circularity: Build reverse logistics and recycling for end of life batteries.
    5. Skilling: Train technicians for certified electric powertrain conversion.

    “[2025] Consider the following statements:

    Statement I: Circular economy reduces the emissions of greenhouse gases.

    Statement II: Circular economy reduces the use of raw materials as inputs. Statement III: Circular economy reduces wastage in the production process.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    (a) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I

    (b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement I explains Statement II

    (c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I

    (d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct

    Question (2023, GS3): “The adoption of electric vehicles is rapidly growing worldwide. How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?

  • India’s first privately-built FFSC rocket engine signals a new dawn in space flight

    Why in the News

    Bengaluru-based Astrobase Space Technologies unveiled EVEREST, India’s first privately built 800 kN Full-Flow Staged Combustion (FFSC) LOX-Methane engine on 7 August 2026. India is now the fourth country after Russia, the US and China with FFSC technology.

    What is an FFSC Engine?

    1. About: An advanced liquid rocket engine architecture offering high thrust and efficiency.
    2. Full-flow: Fuel and oxidiser pass through separate pre-burners, driving turbopumps before entering the main chamber.
    3. Advantage: Almost all propellant contributes to thrust, improving efficiency and reusability.

    What is LOX-Methane?

    • LOX: Liquid Oxygen as oxidiser.
    • Methane: Fuel that burns relatively cleanly, reducing engine deposits and aiding faster refurbishment and turnaround.

    What is IN-SPACe?

    • Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre, an autonomous agency under the Department of Space.
    • Acts as a single-window agency to promote and authorise private space activities.
    • Astrobase received support through its Technology Adoption Fund.

    Why is EVEREST Significant?

    1. Technology: Makes India the 4th FFSC-capable nation.
    2. Reusability: Suitable for reusable launch vehicles with precise throttle control.
    3. Capacity: Could enable reusable systems carrying up to 30 tonnes to LEO.
    4. Manufacturing: Uses advanced manufacturing, including large-scale 3D printing.
    5. Timeline: Development began in 2024; integrated hot-fire tests are planned at Anantapur, with first flight targeted for December 2028.

    Global Comparison

    • Russia: Pioneer in FFSC technology.
    • USA: SpaceX’s Raptor is the only operational FFSC engine.
    • China: LandSpace has developed a commercial high-thrust FFSC engine.
    • India: EVEREST marks its entry into FFSC technology.

    Private Space Sector in India

    • 2020 reforms: Opened space activities to private players through IN-SPACe.
    • Indian Space Policy 2023: Enables greater private participation across the space value chain.
    • NSIL: Commercial arm of the Department of Space.
    • Firms such as Skyroot Aerospace and Agnikul Cosmos are developing indigenous launch technologies.

    “[2026] Consider the following statements about involvement of private entities in India’s space programme:

    1. IN-SPACe is an autonomous agency formed to facilitate participation of private entities.

    2. Agnikul Cosmos launched the world’s first flight using 3D-printed rocket engine.

    3. Skyroot Aerospace has developed liquid fuel for GSLV.

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 2 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Evidence of non-Mendelian inheritance in mice

    Why in the News

    Researchers have reported evidence of non-Mendelian inheritance in mice, involving DNA methylation, genomic imprinting and paramutation. Nanopore sequencing helped detect these epigenetic marks.

    What is Epigenetic Inheritance?

    1. Definition: Transmission of heritable changes in gene activity without altering the underlying DNA sequence.
    2. Major mechanism: Chemical modifications such as DNA methylation can influence whether genes are switched on or off.
    3. Non-Mendelian: Unlike classical Mendelian inheritance, the inherited information is not limited to changes in the DNA sequence.
    4. Genomic imprinting: Expression of certain genes depends on whether they are inherited from the mother or father.
    5. Paramutation: One allele can induce a heritable change in the expression of another allele without changing its DNA sequence.
    6. Nanopore sequencing: Can detect certain DNA modifications, including methylation, while sequencing DNA.

    Why does it matter?

    • Expands inheritance theory: Heritable information can involve regulatory/epigenetic states in addition to DNA sequence.
    • Environment and inheritance: Some environmental factors can influence epigenetic states, though not every acquired epigenetic change is necessarily inherited.
    • Disease relevance: Abnormal epigenetic regulation is associated with cancers and other diseases.
    • Biotechnology: Advanced sequencing can help identify epigenetic modifications alongside DNA sequences.

    “[2021, GS3, 15 marks] What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society?

    [2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:
    1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of egg.
    2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

  • AI tool can shrink and rewrite proteins

    Why in the News

    A university team has developed Raygun, an AI tool that can redesign and miniaturise proteins while retaining their function. This could improve the delivery of protein-based therapies and accelerate drug development.

    What is AI-based Protein Engineering?

    1. Protein engineering: Designing or modifying proteins to obtain desired properties such as smaller size, stability or specific biological functions.
    2. AI-based design: AI models trained on protein sequences can predict and generate redesigned protein structures.
    3. Raygun: The tool can shrink proteins while attempting to preserve their function, potentially making them easier to deliver.

    Why does it matter?

    • Gene therapy: Delivery vectors have limited cargo capacity. Smaller functional proteins can make therapeutic delivery easier.
    • Drug development: AI can reduce dependence on lengthy trial-and-error approaches in protein design.
    • Precision medicine: Engineered proteins could potentially be tailored for specific therapeutic functions.
    • Biosafety: Powerful AI-enabled biological design raises concerns regarding misuse, unintended effects and governance.

    Protein engineering ≠ gene editing

    • Protein engineering: Modifies/designs the protein to alter its properties.
    • Gene editing: Directly modifies DNA sequences.
    • AI protein design: Uses computational models to predict or generate useful protein sequences/structures.
    • Gene therapy: Uses genetic material or biological mechanisms to treat disease.

    [2026] Which of the following statements with regard to genetic medicine is/are correct ?
    1. Genetic medicines correct/compensate for the faulty genes responsible for disease.
    2. Engineered viruses and lipid nanoparticles are used as carriers of the genetic medicine.
    3. Genetic medicines alter the entire DNA sequence.
    Select the answer using the code given below :

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 and 3 only

    [C] 1 and 2 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • AI agents flagged as a new cybersecurity risk

    Why in the News

    Leading AI developers and a national safety institute reported that AI agents took unauthorised actions during controlled cyber tests, highlighting a new category of AI safety and cybersecurity risk.

    What is an AI Agent?

    • AI Agent: An AI system that can perceive, plan, decide and act toward a goal with limited human supervision.
    • Unlike a conventional AI model that mainly generates an output, an agent can use tools, access systems and execute actions.
    • Core feature: Autonomy + goal-directed action

    What did the Tests Reveal?

    • Agents sometimes acted beyond their given instructions.
    • Such behaviour indicates that increasing autonomy can create risks beyond conventional software bugs or model errors.
    • Findings involved OpenAI, Anthropic, Meta and the UK AI Security Institute.

    Alignment Failure vs Capability Failure

    Alignment Failure

    • AI’s behaviour or strategy conflicts with human intent.
    • The system may technically pursue its objective but do so in an unauthorised or undesirable manner.

    Capability Failure

    • AI fails because of inadequate capability, reasoning or execution.
    • The problem is inability rather than deliberate deviation from the intended objective.

    “[2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?
    1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
    2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
    3. Disease diagnosis
    4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
    5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
    (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
    (c) 2, 4 and 5 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • RDI deep-tech fund: most beneficiaries linked to selection panel

    Why in the News

    An investigation found that 15 of the 22 companies receiving the first round of assistance from the Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) Fund had investment links with members of the fund’s selection committee. The panel approved Rs 2,192 crore in soft loans, raising concerns over conflict of interest and transparency.

    What is the Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) Fund?

    • Definition: A Rs 1 lakh crore fund to support private sector research in strategic and deep tech sectors.
    • Focus Areas: Artificial Intelligence, Quantum Technology, Space, Defence, Robotics, Clean Energy, Semiconductors and Digital Healthcare.
    • Financial Support: Collateral free loans up to 50% of project cost, at 2 to 4% interest for up to 15 years.
    • Custodian: Managed through a Special Purpose Fund under the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF).
    • Fund Managers: Loans are disbursed through Second Level Fund Managers (SLFMs), currently the Technology Development Board (TDB) and Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC).

    How are companies selected?

    • Investment Committees: Each SLFM forms an independent investment committee to evaluate proposals.
    • Composition: The TDB committee had 12 members, largely from private equity and technology, with one non voting government representative.
    • Eligibility: Projects must have achieved at least Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 4, meaning laboratory validation is complete.
    • Selection Criteria: Scientific, technological, financial and commercial viability, with decisions taken by majority vote.

    What did the investigation reveal?

    • Conflict Links: 15 of 22 beneficiaries had investment ties with 7 committee members.
    • Funding Concentration: These firms received over Rs 1,377 crore of the total approved amount.
    • Chairman’s Role: Nine selected firms were linked to the committee chairman, who reportedly also held a personal stake in one beneficiary.
    • Committee’s Defence: Members stated that interests were disclosed and they recused themselves from related decisions.
    • Governance Concern: The episode has renewed demands for stronger safeguards in the use of public funds.

    Existing safeguards

    • Mandatory disclosure of financial interests by committee members.
    • Recusal from decisions involving associated companies.
    • Background verification of applicants by fund managers.
    • Expert driven selection to improve technical assessment.
    • However, only two SLFMs currently operate the scheme, concentrating decision making and highlighting the need for greater transparency.

    Back2Basics: Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) Fund

    • Launched: 2025
    • Corpus: Rs 1 lakh crore
    • Nodal Framework: Operates under the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)
    • Objective: Provide long term, low cost financing for private sector research in deep tech and strategic sectors.
    • Implementing Agencies: Technology Development Board (TDB) and Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) as Second Level Fund Managers.
    • Key Feature: Collateral free loans covering up to 50% of project cost through independent investment committees.

  • BioE3 Policy Reports Early Biomanufacturing Gains

    Why in the News

    The Government has highlighted the early achievements of the Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment (BioE3) Policy, demonstrating growing investments and capacity in India’s biomanufacturing sector.

    What is the BioE3 Policy?

    • Full form: Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment (BioE3) Policy.
    • Approved: 2024 by the Union Cabinet.
    • Implementing Agency: Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
    • Objective: Promote high capacity biomanufacturing to drive economic growth, environmental sustainability, and employment generation.

    Key Features of the Policy

    • Focus Areas: The policy identifies six thematic sectors:
      • Bio based chemicals.
      • Smart proteins.
      • Precision biotherapeutics.
      • Climate resilient agriculture.
      • Biofuels and carbon capture.
      • Marine and space biotechnology.
    • Funding Pattern:
      • Government support of up to 70% of project cost.
      • Remaining contribution from the private sector.
    • Industry Participation:
      • Over 600 beneficiaries have utilised BioE3 facilities.
      • Private investment commitments have reached about ₹602 crore.
    • Long term Goal: Support India’s vision of a $300 billion bioeconomy by 2030.

    What is Biomanufacturing?

    • Definition: The production of chemicals, fuels, materials, pharmaceuticals and other products using biological systems such as microorganisms, enzymes or engineered cells.
    • Benefits:
      • Reduces dependence on fossil fuel based manufacturing.
      • Promotes sustainable industrial production.
      • Supports the circular bioeconomy.

    What is a Biofoundry?

    • A highly automated research facility that designs, builds, tests and analyses biological systems.
    • Accelerates the development of new biotechnology products through automation and artificial intelligence.

    [2026] Which of the following statements with regard to GenomeIndia Project is/are correct ?
    1. It is a part of the Human Genome Project.
    2. The project is funded by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India.
    3. Its primary aim is to build a catalogue of genetic diversity of the Indian population.
    Select the answer using the code given below:

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 and 3 only

    [C] 1 and 2 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3