💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Author: B2B

  • Everything that you should know about the World Trade Organization (WTO)

    World Trade Organization (WTO) as the name suggests, is the organization dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. Its main function is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible.

    But why do nations trade? Whatever happened to Swadeshi and self sufficiency? 

    • Different factor endowments – simplest and obvious logic is every country does not possess everything. As we do not have sufficient oil reserves, we can’t do anything but import oil. But we also import things we can produce from simplest of things such as toys to complex things such as mobile phones.
    • Choice -from consumers perspective, it gives them more choices <you can buy iphones or Samsung galaxy, micromax or freedom 251>.
    • Market– Similarly it gives bigger market to industries (economies of scale, a concept that cost decreases as the size of an industry increases) <from sale in India to sale to the whole world>
    • Specialization – If countries didn’t trade, or traded only those things which they did not have (essentially raw materiel), they will have to produce everything. It will hamper specialization. Every country will become jack of all trade, master of none. Trade allows countries to specialize in things they do the best based on their comparative and competitive advantage.<If India is good at producing apples and China at oranges, India should only produce apples and exchange them for oranges>
    • Competition and efficiency – Also domestic industries will not face any competition from outside world, less competition, less incentive to become efficient or to innovate , consumers suffer. Thus trade forces industries to become more efficient.
    • Reduction in hostility – Apart from these economic reasons, as countries trade, they become interdependent on each other and thus chances of hostilities or major wars decrease. New ideas also flow along with trade.

    Discussion so far suggests that in an ideal world we should all promote free trade as it increases efficiency and benefits consumers. But the world is not ideal. There are some problems with free trade and hence need for protecionism–

     

    • In developing economies, industries may not even get a chance to grow because they face competition from more established foreign firms <thus the argument for protecting nascent industries by higher tariffs>
    • Trade can lead to over-specialisation <workers at risk of losing their jobs should world demand fall> <suppose India produced only apples and suddenly some virus infest the crop, there wouldn’t be anything else to sell to the world or someone produces better variety of apple somewhere else, Indian apples would lose market> <recall situation of Cuba when sugar prices fell>
    • What if other country started cheating, subsidizing exports to capture the market abroad and when all domestic industries are killed, increasing the prices <every country must play by the same rules>

    It’s clear that trade can not be totally free in a not so ideal world. Countries need some policy levers to allow domestic industries to grow and diversify their economies. Also there’s need for a watchdog/referee who can adjudicate when other countries start cheating.

    Let’s now discuss barriers to trade

     

    In spite of all the benefits of trade, we all know countries regularly resort to measures which discourage trade (especially imports) to protect domestic industries <hence called protectionist measure> even though they might hurt consumers <problem of silent majority v/s vociferous minority discussed in chapter 2 of economic survey>

    Tariff barriers- custom duties which make imported goods costlier than domestically manufactured goods <it’s imposed to earn revenues for the govt, protect interest of domestic industry>

    Non tariff barrier– Here countries do not impose custom duties but retard flow of trade in other ways.

    Quantitative restrictions- Crude way of doing it is imposing quantitative restrictions on goods imported <quotas, say only up to 100 m tonne of sugar can be imported> or making licenses compulsory to export goods to home country or that only certain licenses can import goods or embargo <banning trade of certain goods with certain countries>

    Standards setting and administrative delays– But countries now employ sophisticated ways to retard flow of trade. Customs official can simply delay clearance of cargo <hence trade facilitation agreement> or can set standards <product using child labor/ environmentally degrading techniques will not be allowed, the problem with TPP> or simply cheat by providing export subsidies or domestic subsidies.

    Two kinds of trade barriers that are allowed for protection of health, safety, environmental protection but are often misused

    1. Technical barriers to trade-technical regulations, standards, and conformity assessment procedures can be set for the protection of human health and safety, or protection of the environment.
    2. Sanitary and Phyto Sanitary Measures – It allows countries to set their own standards for food safety and animals and plant health standards.

    But both the measures specify that standards must not be arbitrary i.e they must be scientific. Also they should not be discriminatory.

    WTO’s role is to reduce these barriers to trade, set rules of the game and adjudicate when one member country accuses other of cheating.

    Let’s learn about WTO in detail

    When? 1995

    Headquarter: Geneva, Switzerland <where are the HQs of IMF and World Bank? Answer in comments> 

    Members: 164 <Afghanistan the most recent member> < latest member of IMF?>

    Origin:

    • US, UK and a few other countries set up, an interim organisation about trade named GATT (General Agreement on Tariff and Trade) in 1947
    • GATT was biased in favour of the developed countries and was called informally as the Rich men’s club.
    • So, the developing countries insisted on setting up of the International Trade Organisation (ITO)
    • That’s the reason, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was set up in 1964 as an alternative, on recommendation of UN committee
    • Next development comes in Uruguay Round of GATT, it sought to expand the scope of the organisation by including, services, investment and intellectual property rights (IPR)
    • Agreements were ratified by the legislatures of 85 member-countries by year-end 1994.
    • On such rectification, the WTO started functioning from Jan 1, 1995 < Marrakesh Agreement>

    Why GATT failed to perform? Any Limitations?

    • Institutional structure – Only the set of rules and multilateral agreements, it lacked institutional structure
    • Limited scope – It didn’t cover trade in services, Intellectual Property Rights(IPR) etc.
    • Dispute Resolution Mechanism and Non-tariff barriers – No
    • Representation for developing and new states – No (Western monopoly)

    Objectives of the WTO

    • Raising standards of living and incomes, ensuring full employment, expanding production and trade, optimal use of world’s resources, at the same time extending the objectives to services and making them more precise
    • Introduces the idea of sustainable development in relation to the optimal use of world’s resources, and the need to protect and preserve the environment in a manner consistent with the various levels of national economic development
    • Recognises the need for positive efforts designed to ensure that developing countries, especially the least developed ones, secure a better share of growth in international trade
    • WTO continues the decision-making practice followed under the GATT Decisions will be taken by a majority of votes cast on the basis of one country, one vote . In fact rarely is voting undertaken. Decisions are mostly based on consensus. <What is the basis of voting in IMF? Answer in comments>

    Principles of the trading system

    A) Non-discrimination –

    1) Most favoured nation (MFN) rule

    • The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions on all trade with other WTO members
    • i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most favorable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all other WTO members.
    • Grant someone a special favour and you have to do the same for all other WTO members
    • Then how do Free Trdae Agreements (FTAs) work? Well as eveywhere, devil is always in detail, FTAs are exempt from this rule.
    • Did you know that Pakistan has not yet granted India MFN status though we have grated them that status <for long time, there’s talk of Pakistan granting us non discriminating market access (NDMA) as Pakistanis feel, if they grant us MFN status, they would be favouring us the most, hahaha>

    2) The National Treatment Policy

    National treatment means that imported goods should be treated no less favorably than domestically produced goods  <after the foreign goods have entered the market> and was introduced to tackle non-tariff barriers to trade (e.g. technical standards, security standards, discriminating against imported goods)

    B) Reciprocity

    • Granting of mutual concessions in tariff rates, quotas, or other commercial restrictions
    • It implies that these concessions are neither intended nor expected to be generalized to other countries <contrast MFN and reciprocity.>

    C) Binding and enforceable commitments –

    • The tariff commitments made by WTO members in a multilateral trade negotiation and on accession are enumerated in a schedule (list) of concessions
    • These schedules establish “Ceiling bindings”: a country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean compensating them for loss of trade <i.e can’t increase tariff beyond these levels>
    • If satisfaction is not obtained, the complaining country may invoke the WTO dispute settlement procedures

    D) Transparency –

    • The WTO members are required to publish their trade regulations, to maintain institutions allowing for the review of administrative decisions affecting trade, to respond to requests for information by other members, and to notify changes in trade policies to the WTO
    • These internal transparency requirements are supplemented and facilitated by periodic country-specific reports (trade policy reviews) through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)
    • WTO system tries also to improve predictability and stability, discouraging the use of quotas and other measures used to set limits on quantities of imports

    E) Safety valves –

    • In specific circumstances, govts are able to restrict trade
    • WTO’s agreements permit members to take measures to protect not only the environment but also public health, animal health and plant health <sanitary and phytosanitary measure, TBT>

    Let’s come to main part of WTO -AGREEMENTS

    <There were many agreements agreed and ratified, but we found only some which are important for us, so let’s analyse them in brief>

     

    1) Agreement on subsidies and countervailing measures (SCM)

    It deals with the provision of subsidies, and the use of countervailing measures to offset injury caused by subsidized imports

    Definition of subsidy has 3 basic elements:

    1. Financial contribution
    2. By a Government or any public body within the territory of a Member
    3. Which confers a benefit.

    All three of these elements must be satisfied in order for a subsidy to exist SCM applies to non-agricultural products.

    It follows the traffic lights approach and classifies subsidies in 3 categories: <scroll up and look at barriers to trade infograph gain>

    Red:

    Subsidies with high trade-distorting effects, such as export subsidies, and those that favour the use of domestic over imported goods are prohibited. [If suppose, Brazil gives subsidy to its product Exported to India, Then India can ban such items from country]

    Green:

    Subsidies that are not specific to an enterprise or industry or a group of enterprises or industries are non-actionable.
    [No action at all – actionless]

    Amber:

    • Subsidies that are neither red nor green belong to the amber category.
    • They are actionable by the trading partners if their interests are adversely hit.
    • The affected country can seek remedy through the dispute-settlement procedures or go for countervailing duties.
      [Here, India can go either for countervailing duties or dispute-settlement procedure]

    2) General Agreement on Trade in Services – GATS

    The creation of the GATS was one of the landmark achievements of the Uruguay Round, whose results entered into force in January 1995.

    Objectives: same as broad objectives of WTO

    What services are covered under GATS?

    • GATS applies in principle to all service sectors, with 2 exceptions.
    • GATS excludes services supplied in the exercise of governmental authority i.e. services that are supplied neither on a commercial basis nor in competition with other suppliers. Eg.- social security schemes and any other public service, such as health or education, that is provided at non-market conditions.
    • Air traffic rights and services directly related to the exercise of such rights are also exempt

    Four modes under GATS <refer to the infograph above>

    Mode 1: Cross-border supply – There’s no movement of natural persons, no legal presence Eg-  an architect can send his architectural plan through electronic means

    Mode 2: Consumption abroad – movement of natural perosns to avail services elsewhere, eg.- a tourist using hotel or restaurant services abroad

    Mode 3: Commercial presence – legal presence in another country, eg.FDI, joint ventures

    Mode 4: Presence or movement of natural persons – here movement of natural person to provide services , eg. India techies going to USA

    It’s clear India wants liberalization in mode 1 and mode 4 <our BPO industry plus software industry, techies going to US> while developed world want liberalization in mode 3 <100% automatic FDI>

    Let’s understand all 4 modes with an example

    • Suppose Apple <USA company> establishes a subsidiary in India. This is supply of services through Mode 3 i.e. Commercial Presence
    • An architect of the Apple sends blueprints over the Internet to another firm in India- this is Mode 1 i.e. Cross Border Supply
    • An Engineer from the said Apple is deputed to work in the subsidiary in India for a limited period for managerial operations – this is Mode 4 i.e. Movement of Natural Persons
    • Certain trainees from the subsidiary in India visit USA and consume both education and tourism services  – this is Mode 2 i.e. Consumption Abroad for USA

    3) TRIPS

    The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, sets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation as applied to nationals of other WTO Members.

    Areas of intellectual property that it covers are –

    • Copyright and related rights, Trademarks including service marks
    • Geographical indications (GI) including appellations of origin <Did you remember, Pakistan also claim GI for their Basmati Rice, but recently India got GI tag for Indo-Gangetic plains basmati rice for 6 states>
    • Industrial designs, patents including the protection of new varieties of plants
    • Layout-designs of integrated circuits; and undisclosed information including trade secrets and test data

    3 Main features of Agreement includes –

    Standards –

    • Agreement sets out the minimum standards of protection to be provided by each Member
    • Each of the main elements of protection is defined, namely the subject-matter to be protected, the rights to be conferred and permissible exceptions to those rights, and the minimum duration of protection

    Enforcement – 

    Set of provisions deals with domestic procedures and remedies for the enforcement of intellectual property rights

    Dispute settlement – 

    The Agreement makes disputes between WTO Members about the respect of the TRIPS obligations subject to the WTO’s dispute settlement procedures

    Read story with Explainer on IPRs here, story on WTO and TRIPS here 

    4) Agreement on Agriculture (AoA)

    Objective:

    • To reform trade in the sector and to make policies more market-oriented.
    • This would improve predictability and security for importing and exporting countries alike

    The new rules and commitments apply to:

    1)Market access : various trade restrictions confronting imports

    2)Domestic support:  subsidies and other programmes, including those that raise or guarantee farmgate prices and farmers’ incomes

    Under this, Subsidies are categorized into 3 boxes –

    Green Box –

    • In order to qualify for the Green Box, a subsidy must not distort trade, or at most cause minimal distortion
    • These subsidies have to be govt-funded (not by charging consumers higher prices) and must not involve price support
    • They tend to be programmes that are not directed at particular products, and include direct income supports for farmers that are not related to <decoupled> current production levels or prices.

    <Like in India farmer is supported for specific products and separate support prices are there for rice, wheat etc. An example of Amber box subisdy. On the other hand income support is uniformly available to farmers and crop doesn’t matter, Green box>

    • Green box subsidies are therefore allowed without limits, provided they comply with relevant criteria
    • They also include environmental protection and regional development programmes, research and development subsidies etc
    • Developed countries have shifted most of their subsidies to green box, hence even though they provide more subsidies than us, they still get away with it

    Blue Box –

    • Only Production limiting Subsidies under this are allowed. They cover payments based on acreage, yield, or number of livestock in a base year <such as subisdies for leaving the land fallow>
    • Targets price are allowed to be fixed by govt and if market prices are lower, so farmer will be compensated with difference between target prices and market prices in cash. This cash shall not be invested by farmer in expansion of production
    • Loophole here is that there no limit on target prices that can be set and those are often set far above market prices deliberately.
    • USA currently isn’t using this method, instead here EU is active.

    Amber Box –

    • All domestic support measures for agriculture, considered to distort production and trade (with some exceptions) fall into the Amber Box and this is Aggregate measure of support (AMS) i.e AMS is trade distorting subsidy in monetary terms
    • It required member countries to report their total AMS for the period between 1986 and 1988, bind it, and reduce it according to an agreed upon schedule <de minimis level>

    What is De-Minimis provision?

    • Under this provision developed countries are allowed to maintain trade distorting subsidies or ‘Amber box’ subsidies to level of 5% of total value of agricultural output. For developing countries this figure was 10%
    • So far India’s subsidies are below this limit, but it is growing consistently
    • This is because MSP are always revised upward whereas Market Prices have fluctuating trends
    • In recent times when crash in international market prices of many crops is seen, government doesn’t have much option to reduce MSP drastically
    • By this analogy India’s amber box subsidies are likely to cross 10% level allowed by de Minimis provision and hence the Bali deal for public stock holding and MSP <India is seeking permanent solution to this problem>

     

    3) Export subsidies:

    • These can be in form of subsidy on inputs of agriculture, making export cheaper or can be other incentives for exports such as import duty remission etc.
    • These can result in dumping of highly subsidized (and cheap) products in other country. This can damage domestic agriculture sector of other country
    • These subsidies are also aligned to 1986-1990 levels, when export subsidies by developed countries was substantially higher and Developing countries almost had no export subsidies that time

    Special safeguard mechanism (SSM)

    • A tool that will allow developing countries to raise tariffs temporarily to deal with import surges or price fall
    • is meant to protect the interests of resource-poor and subsistence farmers in the developing nations
    • Critics claim that SSM could be repeatedly and excessively invoked, distorting trade
    • In turn, the G33, a major SSM proponent, has argued that breaches of bound tariffs should not be ruled out if the SSM is to be an effective remedy
    • SSM is quite important in a scenario in which west has significant powers to subsidize their production and in turn, exports

    Special Products

    • At the 2005 WTO Ministerial Conference in Hong Kong, members agreed to allow developing countries to designate an appropriate number of tariff lines as Special Products (SPs) based on food security, livelihood security and rural development
    • They would be given extra flexibility in market access for these products
    • For instance if wheat is important for food security and livelihoods, India many not fully open up this sector but obviously USA wouldn’t agree on that

    Special and Differential Treatment (S&D)

    Special treatment under WTO to Developing and least developed countries. Special safeguard mechanism (SSM) is a demand under this.

    • longer time periods for implementing Agreements and commitments
    • measures to increase trading opportunities for developing countries
    • provisions requiring all WTO members to safeguard the trade interests of developing countries
    • support to help developing countries build the capacity to carry out WTO work, handle disputes, and implement technical standards, and
    • provisions related to least-developed country (LDC) Members

    A few more points before concluding the topic

    Plurilateral agreements – For the most part, all WTO members subscribe to all WTO agreements. After the Uruguay Round, however, there remained four agreements, originally negotiated in the Tokyo Round, which had a narrower group of signatories and are known as plurilateral agreements <contrast with multilateral agreements>

    1. Trade in civilian aircraft
    2. Govt Procurement
    3. Dairy products <terminated in 1997>
    4. Bovine Meat <terminated in 1997>

    Single Undertaking Principle – Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed. Negotiations proceed simultaneously, not sequentially, and all Members must accept all the results

    Dispute Settlement Process

    1. You don’t like what other country is doing, raise a complaint with WTO
    2. 1st step is mediation, talk with the other country, see if problem can be resolved
    3. No resolution, a dispute settlement panel is formed, hears both parties, gives it’s verdicts
    4. Not satisfied with it’s orders, appeal with the appellate body, decision is final
    5. What if country doesn’t comply with the orders? well there’s very little that WTO can do. Other country is free to take retaliatory measures

     

    WTO timeline

    Further Readings –

  • [Spiritual Tourism #1] PRASAD Cities- Ajmer and Amaravati

    Although the definition and purposes of Tourism is no longer restricted to Heritage and Pilgrimage cities- its definitely India’s USP due to its Civilizational legacy, and being the birthplace of many religions.

    In this series on Themes in Tourism Industry, we’ll start by taking a trip through History and Culture of Cities of Spiritual / Religious Importance. For its promotion Government of India has launched two schemes PRASAD and Swadesh Darshan for Development of Theme-Based Tourist Circuits. 

    About the PRASAD Scheme

    • PRASAD means Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spirituality Augmentation Drive
    • A 100% Centrally Sponsored Scheme under Tourism Ministry
      • Note that funds for any CSS is given to states in installments (20% at approval stage, 60% when 20% work done and rest 20% when 60% work is finished)
    • Provisions under the scheme include
      • Tourism Promotion and Tourist Ecosystem
      • Vocational Training for Tourists and Hospitality Business
        • Hunar se Rozgar tak (HSRT) and earn while you learn programs
      • Improving Tourist Infrastructure

    Provisions regarding Tourist Infrastructure in PRASAD

    • ATM, foreign currency exchange counters
    • Rail, road water transport
    • Green energy streetlights
    • Water adventure sports
    • First-aid centres, Wi-Fi hotspots, Parking facilities
    • Green landscaping, water fountains, walkways, furniture etc.
    • Removing encroachments

    PRASAD versus HRIDAY?

    • HRIDAY means Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana
    • While PRASAD is under Tourism ministry <note that Culture ministry is separate from Tourism ministry> while HRIDAY is under Urban Development Ministry
    • PRASAD cities are handpicked because their tourism is centered around faith, spirituality and religion. On the other hand, a HRIDAY city is chosen for its heritage status that goes beyond faith to include aspects of culture such as Architecture (Eg- Cave temples of Badami, Kakatiya Temples of Warangal)
    • HRIDAY is exclusively focused on Infrastructure that preserve the Heritage Character (Museums, Fairs, Festivals etc) , while PRASAD goes beyond that to include Vocational Training programmes and other things that make up Tourism Ecosystem
    • Common outcomes of both are:
      • Increase in Employment, Tourist Footfalls, Cleanliness of Heritage/Pilgrimage cities
      • Decrease in Pollution, Crime rates etc
    • There are 12 cities selected for both schemes, but there’s a considerable overlap in the sense that 10 cities are common to both. Only cities separate are:
      • Kamakhya in Assam and Kedarnath in Uttarakhand (PRASAD)
      • Badami in Karnataka and Warangal in Telangana
    • Lets take a tour of those common 10 cities and the other 2 specific to PRASAD.

    Map of PRASAD Cities

    source

    #1: Ajmer

    source
    • Surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains (meaning the “Invincible Hill”)
    • Founded by Ajaipal Chauhan (who established The Chauhan Dynasty – 7th century.
    • Ruled by the legendary Prithviraj Chauhan, the last Hindu king of Delhi.
    • Dargah of the Great Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (aka Madina of India)
      • Devotees of all sects and faiths congregate
      • Annual festival of Urs (Death anniversary of a Sufi saint in South Asia, usually held at the saint’s dargah such as Chisti’s; it is celebrated rather than mourned)
      • Picture of harmony and universal brotherhood.
    • Variety of styles of Architecture including lndo-Islamic, Royal Rajasthani, lndo-Saracenic and Jain styles of architecture.
      • Soniji Ki Nasiyan is a famous Digambara Jain temple from Ajmer
    • Ajmer is also the base for visiting Pushkar (11 km), the abode of Lord Brahma and a sacred town of Hindus <Pushkar is far from Mahadeo Hills of MP, remember 2015 prelims question?>
    • Artists of this area
      • Carving on wood and ivory,
      • Blue pottery

    #2: Amaravati

    • What’s in a name?
      • Translates to “The town lives forever”
      • Also referred as Amareswaram
      • Formerly known as Andhra nagari
      • Name derived from famous “Amareswara temple” dedicated to Lord Shiva
    • Ancient Rulers of Amaravati
      • Capital of Satavahanas who ruled from 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE <most important period for Amaravati>
      • Andhra Ikshvakus
      • Pallava kings
      • Eastern Chalukyas
      • Telugu Cholas
      • Kakatiyas in 11th century CE
    • Medieval Rulers of Amaravati
      • Delhi Sultanate
      • Bahmani Sultanate
      • Vijayanagara Empire,
      • Munsuri Nayaks
      • Sultanate of Golconda
    • Mentions of Amaravati found in:
      • Skanda Purana gives a picture of the place
      • Puranic literature such as Aitreya Brahamana mentions about “Andhra-jati” ruling area we now know as Amaravati
    • The Amaravati Stupa
      • Buddhist stupa (Dhyana) was built during the Reign of Ashoka in 200 BCE
        • Carved with panels that tells the story of Buddha
      • During the period of the Decline of Buddhism, this stupa was also neglected and it was buried
      • Stupa is related to the “Vajrayana” (Tibetan) teachings of Kalchakra (a festival held in 2006, Dalai Lama inaugurated)
      • NOTE: Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) also visited Amaravati Stupa in 640 CE

    source
    • Ancient Art (Sculpture) from Amaravati
      • Amaravati art as one of the three major styles or schools of ancient Indian Sculpture
        • Other two being the Gandhara style and the Mathura style.
      • Use of White marble (to Potrays a Greco-Roman influence)
      • Physical beauty with elegance
      • Narrative rather than individualistic (not deities but Humans)
      • Depiction of Kings and Princes
      • Direct result of the close trade and diplomatic contacts between south india and the ancient roma
      • Amaravati has itself yielded a few Roman coins
      • World’s finest examples of Narrative sculpture.

    source
    Published with inputs from Amar

  • Repatriation of Artifacts & Antiquities under Colonial Possession

    In previous blog of this series we learnt that our heritage under Colonial possession qualifies as an “illegal acquisition” as per international conventions. 

    So technically, countries like UK are indeed liable to return antiquities and heritage properties under their private or public possession. But politics aside, there are some other reasons due to which there has been little progress on restitution of Peacock Throne, or everyone’s favourite- the Koh-i-Noor diamond.

    International Conventions on returning colonial possessions

    1. UNESCO’s Convention on the Means of prohibiting and preventing the illicit import, export and transfer of ownership of cultural property (1970)
      • Newly independent states after World wars, were trying to recover important cultural objects that are mostly found in the museums of their former colonizing state.
      • Three main pillars: Protection against theft (Preventive Measure), Restitution Measures through Diplomatic channels, and International cooperation.
      • But the issue with this convention is that its mandate is not retroactive and most of the illegal acquisitions were made before 1970 before the fall of Colonialism.
      • Contemporary relevance: Monuments are being destroyed locally (IS in Syria or the Taliban in Afghanistan) can be taken out and protected for the sake of the whole world by a capable country under this convention. It can later be returned to the “source” countries when the conflict ends.
    2. UN General Assembly resolutions
      • UNGA has made successive resolutions on this matter
      • Deplored “the wholesale removal of Cultural Heritage, virtually without payment” as a result of colonial or Foreign Occupation
      • Unlike UNESCO’s convention- their mandates has been retroactive
      • Covered cultural property lost either as a consequence of
        1. Foreign or colonial occupation, or
        2. Through illicit traffic “prior” to the adoption of the 1970 Convention
      • Then why no success?
        • Covers cultural properties that are currently in safe places and open to the public, like museums, archives and libraries. Thus, it does not cover the equally important Private Sphere
        • CAG’s findings that Indian artifacts have reached foreign auction houses like Sotheby’s and Christie’s
        • Eg- Bonhams, the london private auctioneer, recently auctioned Tipu Sultan’s property against all efforts by India to claim its ownership over it.
        • Most of the personal wealth and possessions of the 18th century Mysore ruler including that of Tipu Sultan, is in the illegal private possession of families, descendants of British and Scottish soldiers <which particular soldier/general could we be referring to?>
      • Why no repatriation from Public Museums?
        • Cultural institutions like Public Museums have yet to acknowledge the full negative legacy of the colonial rulers.
        • While many of these museums are autonomous, when such demands are made on an International level, local governments do intervene and matter turns diplomatic and political.

    Why Repatriation of possessions is a just demand?

    1. Repatriation is already happening: Restitution of Jewish Artifacts by Nazis
      • Association of Art Museum Directors (AAMD) adopted a series of protocols to ensure that any work of art proven to be taken forcibly from a Jewish family during the Nazi regime should be returned to the rightful heirs
      • Between 1998 and 2006, 26 works in American museums were identified as being looted by the Nazis and were, in each case, restituted to the heirs
    2. Non-governmental actors succeeding on many levels— students resident in the U.K. — getting into the discussion around national cultural patrimony
      • Nigerian students demanding the return of the Benin bronzes looted from Nigeria at the time of the British imperial siege of the country in the late 19th century
      • Pressure generated so far has led for Cambridge University to remove the articles from Public display. It goes a long way into acknowledging the mistakes, if not outrightly returning the possessions.
      • Furthermore, few descendants of British Soldiers have shown the way by returning Nigerian Artifacts to their rightful owners, that was otherwise looted by their grandfathers in 19th century.

    Why are ex-Colonialists against repatriation?      

    1. They say that Encyclopedic museums of Europe and the U.S. are repositories of world art under one roof.
      • That they take care (by acting as protectors) of our global heritage, as art knows no boundaries
      • In this way they claim to be promoting international understanding of art.
      • Counter: This argument reeks of old European big-brother attitude that claims to be a superior civilization taking upon itself the task of correcting other civilizations.
    2. Objects were taken from countries such as Egypt, China, or India because none of these countries had the resources or the inclination to protect their own treasures
      • It was British officials who discovered, excavated or restored great sites such as Sanchi or Ajanta while there was no indigenous interest in preserving them at the time.
      • Counter: By this logic, they should return these artifacts to us, because now capable and resourceful enough to preserve the

    What are the “real” consequences of Repatriation on ex-Colonial countries?

    • Former colonizers would have to acknowledge various wrongs perpetrated by them on the colonies they ruled. This would result in a domino effect and not just restricted to repatriation of heritage objects, and could cause an International debacle and domestic shame.
    • Many of the biggest museums, especially the Louvre, the British Museum, and even some major American museums would get hollowed out of their collections

    So how do we resolve this issue?

    1. Museums of the Euro-American world could create a Long-term Loan programme
      • National Museum in New Delhi were to receive a long-term loan of Egyptian objects or 19th century American landscape paintings so that the National Museum too could begin to resemble an encyclopaedic museum of the West
    2. Seriously think about returning the ownership of objects back to the source countries
      • This could only happen if Western museums actually acknowledged the colonial past.
      • And simply recognising their role as “protectors” of, and not “owners” of global heritage.
    Published with inputs from Amar

  • Theft of Artifacts & Antiquities, Domestic Laws and International Conventions

    Every year INTERPOL issues alert on most-wanted art objects stolen and illicitly traded across the world and invariably Indian artifacts find a mention.

    Theft Of Artifacts: Why Is It Important Issue?

    • Global Financial Integrity (GFI) Report says that Illegal trade of artifacts and antiquities is one of the world’s most Profitable Criminal Enterprises ($6 Billion dollar)
      • GFI is a Washington based non-profit, research, advisory, and advocacy organization, which produces analyses of illicit financial flows. It was founded by Raymond baker.
    • UNESCO recently confirmed that ISIS is trafficking in art and antiquities to finance its operations, and earning approximately $1 million of revenue a day.
    • In 2015, Operation Hidden Idol was launched by USA’s Homeland Securities Investigation Department which to recover and repatriate looted around 2600 Artifacts and Antiquities by Subhash Kapoor worth an estimated 650 Crores ($100 million)
      • A Chola era sculpture of Shiva and Parvati (“Festival Bronze statute”) stolen from Tamil Nadu and smuggled into the US was eventually returned to India.
    • International Art market is a $50 billion market that is almost entirely unregulated

    source

    What does a country stand to lose when its Antiquities are stolen?

    • Double Jeopardy due to illicit removal of cultural objects
    • Irreplaceable: Stolen antiquities are irreplaceabe by themselves
    • Loss of Heritage: Crucial historical information and legacy about the artifact and its period is lost

    What are the Legal Provisions available with India to address such theft?

    • Antiquities And Art Treasures Act 1972
    • Indian Treasure Trove Act 1949
    • National Mission On Monuments And Antiquities– it creates a National Register On Artifacts that are unprotected
    • National Manuscript Mission for Documenting Heritage
    • Bilateral agreements to recover smuggled artifacts
      • For instance- Australia will return Nataraja Idol (Bronze) under its own Protection of Movable Cultural Heritage Act
      • It was originally from Sapthakanni Temple in Sripuranthan (under Chola times)
      • Australia is also a signatory to a UNESCO convention on the illicit import, export and transfer of ownership of cultural property

    source

    International Treaties and Conventions that protect Artifacts and Antiquities:

    source

    #1. Protection under Hague Convention (1954)

    • It provides for protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict
    • Rules to protect cultural goods during armed conflicts such as monuments, art, archaeological sites, scientific collections, manuscripts, books and other objects of artistic, historical or archaeological interest to ensure the cultural legacy doesn’t get affected during war.
    • The Hague Convention was adopted in the wake of the severe cultural destruction that occurred during the Second World War
    • Convention defines a Protective Sign (“Blue Shield”) to facilitate the Identification of protected cultural property during an armed conflict

    #2. Protection under Geneva Convention on War

    • Establishes the standards of international law for the humanitarian treatment of war.
    • Under Article 53 of Protection Of Cultural Objects And Of Places Of Worship in the Event of Armed Conflict– it provides for protection of UNESCO world heritage sites

    #3. Under UNESCO Convention (1970) on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property

    • Circulation of artifacts are prohibited under this UNESCO treaty
    • India is a signatory to this treaty

    Why have Legal Provisions in India been ineffective?

    1. Indian Treasure Trove Act (1949)
      • This act is too obsolete, was last amended in 1949
      • Because any object worth more than (mere) 10 Rs found hidden in soil is regarded as “Treasure”!
      • Barriers to Good Samaritans: Person who dutifully reports the find is often made to go through Cumbersome procedure
    2. Antiquities And Art Treasures Act
      • Under this act- antiquities in private possession must be registered and person trading in them must get a license.
      • But improper enforcement of law, and lack of punitive action on traders without licences has made a mockery of this law
    3. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has been criticized by a 2013 CAG report for failing to even recognize few artifacts set to return for repatriation by USA and Australian authorities
      • That ASI has no policy for management of antiquities. Storage conditions of these antiquities in monuments like Safdarjung’s Tomb and Purana Qila are pathetic.
    4. Our laws inhibit Community Participation
      • Local community is usually the first respondant to path-breaking discoveries
      • Many a cases such as recent Rakhigarhi Excavation (which went on to become largest IVC site) was first reported on Farming land by local workers and farmers
      • In absence of incentives to identify and report such Treasure Troves to authorities, they suffer irreparable damage as people treat them as derelicts

    Solutions: Lessons From Other Countries

    (i) Community Participation

    • Best practices in England and Wales have shown remarkable success in reducing theft of artefacts
    • Portable Antiquities Scheme: Encourages local communities to voluntarily report and registr discovery of artefacts with help of experts
    • Resulting database is placed in the public domain
    • India can learn from such laws and adapt features to suit Indian Conditions

    (ii) Enhanced And Dedicated Policing

    • Dedicated Art Police in Italy (country with highest UNESCO Natural and Cultural Heritage sites)
    • In 2009 itself, they recovered 60,000 pieces of looted antiquities and helped reduce art theft by 15%

    (iii) India should learn from USA’s Operation Hidden Idol

    • India should work on a mission mode to recover theft of its own artifacts by launching a policy for management of Antiquities and make ASI accountable for it.
    • It includes checking catalogues at international auction houses, posting news of such theft on websites, posting information about theft in the International Art Loss Registry, sending photographs of stolen objects electronically to dealers and auction houses and scholars in the field.

    What about Colonial Possessions of artifacts?

    • Yes, some argue that our heritage such as Koh-i-noor diamond and others in Western Museums is nothing but illegal acquisition.
    • Hence, that too comes under the mandate of Convention On The Means Of Prohibiting And Preventing The Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property of which India and UK both are signatories

    We shall address topic of Colonial Repatriation in detail in the next blog of this series. Keep checking this collection

     

    Published with inputs from Amar

  • Museums of India and Associated Issues

    Recently National Museum of Natural History caught fire due to adequate safeguards. It brought to our attention- the appalling state of our century old museums, and our utter disregard towards it.

    In today’s blog we will discuss at length as to what are the reasons behind it. What could be done to restore their legacy?

    As usual, we’ll start by learning about some notable institutions and harvest some important tid-bits for prelims along the way.

    Notable Museums of India

    1. National Museum, New Delhi (Subordinate Office under Ministry of Culture)

    source

    2. National Gallery of Modern Art, Bengaluru

    source

    3. Victoria Memorial Hall (VMH)

    source
    • Launched by Lord Curzon in 1906

    4. Asiatic Society, Kolkata

    source
    • Founder: British Indologist William Jones
    • Patronized by Warren Hastings (1st Governor of Bengal)
      • Notable: Charles Wilkins under his patronage published first English translation of Bhagvat Gita
    • Most important of the society’s achievements was the decipherment of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1837
    • Successful decipherment inaugurated the study of Indian palaeography
    • First Museum in India was established by the Asiatic Society in 1814 called “Indian Museum” at Kolkata

    5. National Museum of Natural History (NMNH)

    source
    • Initiated in 1972 on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of India’s Independence
      • Although publically launched on 1978, coinciding with World Environment Day
    • Functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change <and not Ministry of Culture>
    • NMNH has extended its geographical range by establishing Regional Museums of Natural History (Bhopal, Mysuru etc)

    Aims and Objectives of NMNH:

    • Museum of Natural History to depict its flora, fauna and mineral wealth
    • Environmental awareness among the masses (including conservation)
    • Educational programmes, guided tours and Teacher Orientation Workshops

    What are the issues with Indian Museums?

    1. Lack of a comprehensive Museum Policy

    • Salary and Personnel issues
      • Since the government does not assess or rate museums, there is no incentive for anyone to work.
      • Government does not pay professional salaries to personnel involved in restoration and conservation. Neither does it engage productively with Private and Civil Society
    • Revenue and Financial Issues
      • Currently there is no revenue model for museums, and the only source of money for them is from Ticket Sales that are meagre (Rates as low as 5 Rs for ASI renovated Museums)
      • Some revenue does come from increase in merchandise sales but any money a government museum makes- goes into a common kitty and is not spent on well performing museums.
      • Mumbai’s chhatrapati shivaji maharaj vastu sangrahalaya (MCSMVS) runs without government support By a handful of influential Mumbaites under a Board of Trustees
    • Lack of Privatisation
      • Government museums make up 90 per cent of the roughly 1,000 museums in India
      • They are banned from Partnerships with private individuals or organisations, and have to depend on Central funding even for day-to-day operations
    • Multiple ministries holding charges of various Museums <remember that not all museums come under Ministry of Culture, for eg- the recently fire hit NMNH>
    • Lack of autonomy

    2. Appalling state of Museum Management

    • 2011, UNESCO published a scathing report on the appalling conditions at India’s top 8 museums
      • Sub-standard maintenance, Lighting and signage, Archaic policies, no skilled manpower
    • Recently ASI lamented on the damages caused to 2nd BC Yakshi statue and a 3rd BC Mauryan lion, at the oldest museum of India in Kolkata due to careless handling by inadequately trained museum workers
    • Fire Safety Issues in Museums: That many of our museums would fail Fire Safety Audit requirements by NBC (National Building Code)
    • Failure in Mandate of Museums: That they act as mere closed-door guardians of treasures instead of disseminating them

    3. Security Issues

    • CISF is in charge of providing security to National Museum, New Delhi and Indian Museum in Kolkata.
    • But government has not been able to provide barrack accommodation in their campus as per CISF requirements.

     

    So how do we improve status of our Museums?

    1. Aforementioned UNESCO report and a 14-point museum reforms agenda put together by the Ministry of Culture in 2010-11 served as a wake-up call
    2. Instead of spending money in acquiring new collections, government should focus on launching Museum awareness drives. Relaunch old Museums with renewed vigor by highlighting their contemporary relevance to people.
    3. Increase people’s engagement to History by providing guided tours free of cost
      • For it is people that transform a museum from what is essentially just an archive.
    4. Administration should balance autonomy and accountability. Here we can take a cue from British Museums that are run by a government-appointed Board of Trustees.
    5. Digitization of information can cause the traditional model of museums (i.e. as static bricks-and-mortar) to expand to include virtual exhibits and high-resolution images of their collections that patrons can peruse.
    6. Train museum professionals by International Tie-ups. Organize exchange of Museum professionals as part of Biateral treaties between diplomatic exchanges.
    7. Improve Disaster Management of Museums
      • GIS and national library for ease of tracking and prioritizing evacuation of valuable artifacts
      • Follow NBC guidelines for strengthening museum structures
      • Cases of galleries must be shatter proof and bullet proof
      • In flood prone areas, valuable artifacts must not be stored in basements
    8. Involving Civil Society organizations by incentivising donation of precious artifacts for public viewing and conservation by NGOs like INTACH
    9. Training staff of museums to respond to disasters such as Fire, Earthquakes etc

    And how to reduce Fires in Museums?

    • Use of “plywood” for keeping the exhibits should be minimised
    • Ensure ventilation system in place
    • Ensure Fire Audit for the building has been conducted
    • Sprinkler system and water hydrants in the building, but should be functional- i.e. connected to a water source
    • Post Damage issues:
      • Structural damage due to fire may not keep building safe for long
      • Hence adequate reinforcements may be necessary, because complete collapse can’t be ruled out

    Annex: International Museum Day (IMD)

    • Theme of 2016 IMD: “Museums and Cultural Landscapes“
    • Coordinated by the International council of museums (ICOM)
      • ICOM is a NGO maintaining formal relations with UNESCO <but not part of it>
      • ICOM also partners with entities such as the World Intellectual Property Organization, INTERPOL and the World Customs Organization,
    • International public service missions on fighting illicitly traded Artifacts and Ethical standards for Museums
    Published with inputs from Amar

  • [Arts & Heritage Institutions #4] ICCR and ICHR

     

    So far in Art & Heritage Institution series, we’ve learnt about institutions that preserve our heritage and promote our diverse arts- at the national level. But one of India’s key asset globally is its “soft-power” or Cultural diplomacy which involves the use of cultural influence.

    In this post, we will learn about those Institutions that enable India to exert such influence.

    1. INDIAN COUNCIL FOR CULTURAL RELATIONS (ICCR)

    source

    • ICCR is analogous to the British Council, France’s Alliance Francaise, Germany’s Goethe-Institut and China’s Confucius Institute
    • Founded in 1950 by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, independent India’s first Education Minister
      • Maulana also helped establish other institutions that we’ve covered previously in this series such as Sahitya Akademi, and Sangeet Natak Akademi. He also founded Lalit Kala Akademi <promotes Visual Arts- Folk and Contemporary>
    • Soft power vision, ‘to promote a communion of cultures and a creative dialogue among nations.’
    • Its broad mandate is to develop relations with:
      • Other countries and peoples (Cultural agreements with 72 countries)
      • National and inter-national organisations in the field of culture

    General assembly

    • Consists of representatives each of the Lalit Kala Akademi, Sahitya Akademi and Sangeet Natak Akademi
    • Eminent artistes from the fields of performing, fine and plastic arts
    • Representatives of universities or of institutions
    • President shall be appointed by the President of India and shall hold office for three years

    Initiatives:

    1. Exhibitions

    • Organizing various Foreign film festivals
    • Sponsors individual performers in dance, music, photography, theatre, and the visual arts. Here it collaborates with Sangeet Natak Akademi, Lalit Kala Akademi and other such institutions.

    2. Academic

    • Council sends visiting professors to collaborate in the teaching and research programmes of foreign universities relating to Indian studies and Indian languages

    3. Scholarships

    • 6252 foreign students are studying in Indian Universities and other Institutions on scholarship provided by ICCR
    • ICCR has 20 Regional Offices (ROs) to look after the welfare of foreign students.
    • India-Africa Relationship: ICCR offered 900 scholarships around 54 countries of Africa in the past decade.

    4. Promotion of Indology

    • ICCR has helped fund programmes on Indology in Russia at the University of Moscow. It is one of the key element of Indo-Russian diplomatic goodwill.
    • Indology is the study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, especially Ancient India (Vedic studies et al)

    5. Promoting Hindi <which Article in our Constitution mandates this?>

    • ICCR, carries out various activities to popularize and promote Hindi language in other countries
    • Chairs of hindi language in universities
    • Translating works of World Literature into Hindi and other Indian languages
    • Translation of Sanskrit and Hindi classics into foreign languages
    • Celebration of the ‘‘World Hindi day” on 10th of January every year (across the world along with Ministry of External Affairs)
      • Trap Info: A different occasion- National Hindi Divas is celebrated in India on September 14 every year to mark the day on which the Constituent Assembly adopted Hindi as the “Official” Language of the Union.
    • Bi-monthly Hindi journal – “Gagananchal“

    6. Notable Publications

    • Indian Horizons in English
    • Africa Quarterly in English

    Comparison between China’s Confucius Institute (CI) and ICCR:

    • In ICCR’s 64 years of existence it has only 37 overseas centres, while today there are over 480 CIs having started in 2004 only.
    • CIs function inside established universities, colleges and schools world over <ICCR can also follow this strategy to increase penetration>
    • Unlike CI, ICCR is autonomous body
    • India can learn from CI and help promote Yoga through ICCR’s extensive network in over 90 countries.

    2. INDIAN COUNCIL OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH (ICHR)

    source
    • Established by an Executive Order
    • Disburses “funds” for carrying out research to indian and foreign scholars
    • Aid received from the Department of Higher Education in the MoHRD <NOT Ministry of Culture>

    Objective: National direction to an objective and Scientific writing of history

    Composition:

    • Eminent historian nominated by the Government
    • Representative of the UGC
    • Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India <Logo- Sanchi Stupa + Emblem>
    • Director General of the National Archives of India

    Journals:

    1. Indian Historical Review (bi-annually)
    2. Itihas (in Hindi)

     

    Published with inputs from Amar

  • [Arts & Heritage Institutions #3] Sahitya Akademi and Sangeet Natak Akademi

    Continuing the series on Cultural Institutions, today we’ll exclusively focus on Art Institutions. While earlier we learnt about Institutions that preserve Tangible Heritage such as Architecture (ASI and INTACH), following Institutions are noteworthy because they promote Intangible Heritage of our culture; notably- Literature, Music and Dance.

    These are especially important considering recent furore of Sahitya Akademi awardees returning their awards in what was referred to as “Award Wapasi”. We’ll also learn about another Institution and various awards & means through which they promote arts in India. So, let’s get started!

    1. Sahitya Akademi (1954)

    source
    • Its an Autonomous organization fully financed by the Government
    • Also referred to as India’s National Academy of Letters
    • Entrusted with promotion of Literature (“Sahitya” means Literature in Hindi) through following mechanisms:
    1. Literary dialogue, publication and promotion
    2. Undertakes literary activities in Twenty-four Indian languages
      • Trap Info: Note that it goes beyond 22 languages of the 8th Schedule to include English + Rajasthani
    3. Development of Indian literature

    Awards and Fellowships

    1. Sahitya akademi award (Plaque and Cash of 1 lac)
      • Poetry, Novel, Essay, Autobiography, Literary Criticism in 24 languages
    2. Bhasha samman
      • Awards to writers for significant contribution to Indian languages other than the above 24 major ones
      • Contribution to classical & medieval literature
      • Given to writers, scholars, editors, collectors, performers or translators
    3. Premchand fellowships (started in 2005)
      • Given to persons of eminence in the Field of Culture from SAARC countries <thus its scope extends to beyond (i) India and (ii) Literature>
    4. Coomarswamy fellowships
      • Given to scholars from Asian countries <not just SAARC> to spend 3 to 12 months in India to pursue a literary project
    5. Sahitya Akademi fellowship
      • Given to the “immortals of literature“
      • Limited to 21 people at a time
      • First recipient was 2nd president of India Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
      • Other notable ones: Khushwant Singh, VS Naipaul

    Issues faced by Sahitya Akademi

    • Although Sahitya Akademi awards are notable for its merit based selections it is not untouched by controversies.
    • A jury comprising of Literary Stalwarts selects awardees (as opposed to Prime Minister for Civilian Awards such as Bharat Ranta, Padma Shree etc)
      • This is a good reason why the Sahitya Akademi awardees shouldn’t be returning their awards, as they’ve been conferred on their artistic merit. Returning the award would be demeaning the jury’s decision and the historic institution.
    • Transparency issues regarding nomination of litterateurs for the coveted Sahitya Akademi Award
      • Interference of Bureaucrats in nomination procedure, who aren’t qualified to make any kind of literary selections (they narrow down the pool of nominees for Jury to make final selection from)
    • Due to this reason, past awardees such as Khushwant Singh had criticized the process for ignoring eminent writers and awarding below-par writers and sub-standard literary works.

    2. Sangeet Natak Akademi  (1953)

    source

    Mandate/Objectives:

    • Another Autonomous Institution under Ministry of Culture
    • Promotion of performing arts– Indian music, dance and drama
    • Maintains a Gallery of Musical Instruments
    • Maintenance of standards of training in the performing arts
    • Teaching institutions
      • Kathak Kendra, Delhi (Classical Dance from Uttar Pradesh)
      • Jawaharlal Nehru Manipur Dance Akademi in Imphal
      • Sattriya Centre (Classical Dance from Assam)
      • Centre for Kutiyattam (Age-old Sanskrit theatre of Kerala; Also an Indian Intangible Cultural Heritage as per UNESCO)
      • Chhau Centre (Tribal martial dance in Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal)

    Awards:

    1. Sangeet Natak Akademi Award:
      • Highest national recognition conferred on eminent artistes.
    2. Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship, Ratna Sadsya
      • To distinguished individuals for their contribution to the field of arts, music, dance and theatre.
    3. Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva Puruskar:
      • Given to young artists for their talent in the fields of music, dance and drama
      • Notable info about Ustad Bismillah Khan:
        • Known for popularizing the shehnai, a subcontinental wind instrument of the oboe class
        • Awarded India’s highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, in 2001, becoming the Third classical musician after M. S. Subbulakshmi and Ravi Shankar to be accorded this distinction

     

    Published with inputs from Amar

  • [Arts & Heritage Institutions #2] INTACH

    Of late, UPSC has shown a liking for asking questions on Institutions beyond that of Government. Few examples include International NGOs such as Amnesty International in 2015 and Domestic charities such as Bombay Natural History Society in 2014.

    Keeping prelims in mind, within the context of ongoing series of Heritage Institutions, let us understand about INTACH. It is also important from Mains GS-2 perspective (Role of NGOs) because some call it a Civil Society alternative to Archaeological Survey of India <we’ve already covered that in detail in the 1st part of this series, do read up on it>

    source

    Background

    • INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage) was founded in 1984, is an autonomous NGO for preservation of Indian Art and Cultural Heritage
    • Its motto is “Dedicated to Conservation“

    Tasks undertaken by INTACH

    • Restoration of monuments that fall outside the coverage of Archaeological Survey of India and other government agencies <Remember that ASI hasn’t shown much interest towards working with INTACH>
    • Advocacy for heritage property conservation
    • Public awareness through heritage walks and buses <Just like Bombay Natural History Society does, its a common feature of these type of NGOs>
    • Establishment of heritage clubs in schools
    • Holding of awareness workshop for teachers of schools and colleges

    Some notable works done by INTACH

    1. It had developed Raghurajpur, Orissa, a place famous for its ‘Pattachitra’ artists and ‘Gotipua’ dance troupes as a heritage village, which has now become a major rural tourist destination
      • Pattachitra is a cloth-based scroll painting of Odisha. Patta = Cloth and Chitra = Picture. Most of these paintings depict stories of Hindu deities of Jagannath and Vaishnava Sect. It has also been given a GI tag. To know more about GI tags, click here to read.
      • Gotipua is a traditional dance form of Odisha, and the precursor of Odissi. Its name comes from Gopi (Single boys), who dress as women to praise Jagannath and Krishna. The dance is executed by a group of boys who perform acrobatic figures inspired by the life of Radha and Krishna.
    2. It later used the same pattern to develop Padmanabhpur village, Ganjam district, Orissa, famous for its weavers and folk dancers, into another heritage destination

    What can we learn from INTACH’s mission?

    • Sensitizing the public about the pluralistic cultural legacy of India
    • Instill a sense of social responsibility towards preserving India’s common heritage <Similar to our Fundamental Duty as per Article 51A>
    • Undertake emergency response measures during natural or man-made disasters and support the local administration whenever heritage is threatened

    In the next article, we will learn about few notable Autonomous Institutions promoting Arts under Ministry of Culture. This will include Sahitya Akademi and others.

     

    Published with inputs from Amar | Pic: Hindu, Tvsarts

  • [Arts & Heritage Institutions #1] Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)

     

    SOURCE

    Background

    • Founded by Alexander Cunningham, who is also revered as the “Father of Indian Archaeology”
      • He was the protege of James Prinsep <who was he, post in comments>
      • It was Lord Canning who helped pass a statute for ASI’s establishment in 1861
    • Post Independence, it’s a Statutory body that now works under Ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains act (AMASR Act), 1958
    • It works as an attached Office of the Ministry of Culture
    • ASI has 3678 protected monuments and Archaeology sites of National Importance + 20 cultural under the World Heritage List by UNESCO

    Initiatives by ASI

    1. Museums

    ASI’s museums are customarily located right next to the sites that their inventories are associated with “so that they may be studied amid their natural surroundings and not lose focus by being transported”.

    A dedicated Museums Branch maintains a total of 44 museums spread across the country.

    2. Publications by ASI

    • Epigraphia Indica
    • Ancient India
    • Indian Archaeology: A Review (Annually)

    3. Library

    • Central Archaeological Library in the National Archives building in Janpath, New Delhi

    ASI Issues and Challenges

    1. To Restore or Not

    • Guidelines by John Marshall, founding DG of ASI <why was he important?> followed modern conservation ideology- “Restoration ends where conjecture begins”
    • Issue is that technically speaking- ruins are seldom “restored” in original state. This is because in absence of documentation- archaeologists are left to conjecture what buildings may have looked like when they were originally built.
    • Hence, many a conservationists are raising questions on ASI’s process of restoration. 

    2. Personnel Management Issues

    • Higher Authorities of ASI are traditionally from IAS Cadre
    • Solution: In-house specialist must be promoted for better coordination b/w technical and managerial aspects of restoration
    • Impacts: Would go a long way into incentivizing professionals
    • Other issues: Low level of partnership with public, or Civil Society Organizations such as NGOs. Recently INTACH- an NGO approached it for sharing work on restoration, but ASI denied.

    3. Issues explored in CAG Report

    • 92 monuments are untraceable with no database on artifacts
    • Poor Documentation of Protected Monuments/Artifacts
    • Implemented in the 10 museums of Ministry of Culture/ASI in the first phase
    • Paucity of funds (Eg- Red fort gardens lie unkempt)


    4. What can be done for better management of Artifacts?

    • Digitization of Museums and records (also to save them from calamities such as recent fire in Indira Gandhi Museum and Floods such as in Jammu and Kashmir)
    • Do not store them in bunkers in basement, follow scientific methods of preservation.
    • Partner with NGOs and private institutions such as INTACH <to be covered in next post of this series>
    • Finally, overhaul of Museum Management in India is the only long term solution

    Annexure: National Monument Authority (NMA)

    It has members hailing from the fields of archaeology, country and town planning, architecture, heritage, conservation architecture or law. It comes under ASI’s supervision.

    Objectives:

    1. Responsible for the protection and preservation of monuments and sites
    2. Through management of the prohibited and regulated area around the centrally protected monuments
    3. Streamlining of approval procedure for construction related activities in regulated/restricted areas in the vicinity of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI’s) Protected Monuments in various cities

    NMA in News:

    • NOC Online Application Portal and Processing System (NOAPS): An e-Gov Project wherein NMA partnered with ISRO  to calculate accurate measurements of Geo Co-ordinates of various monuments around Centrally Protected Monuments for speedy approvals.
    Published with inputs from Amar

  • 26 Ramsar sites in India: A comprehensive survey

    First of all, look at the details below. What comes first to mind is- So much of factual data! Why should I read so many facts?

    Let’s explore why?

    #1. Increasing thrust on area of ecology due to combined Prelims of Civil Services and Forest Services

    #2. Factual question trend has increased in Prelims (seen in 2015)

    Proof for utility of this data?

    A direct one…

    [Prelims 2015] Which of the following National Parks is unique in being a swamp with floating vegetation that supports a rich biodiversity?
    (a) Bhitarkanika National Park
    (b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
    (c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park
    (d) Sultanpur National Park
    Answer: See description for Loktak Lake (13th entry in details below)

    Indirect…

    [Prelims 2015] Which one of the following is the national aquatic animal of India?
    (a) Saltwater crocodile
    (b) Olive ridley turtle
    (c) Gangetic dolphin
    (d) Gharial

    [Prelims 2015] With reference to ‘dugong’, a mammal found in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
    1. It is a herbivorous marine animal.
    2. It is found along the entire coast of India.
    3. It is given legal protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.
    (a) 1 and 2
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 1 and 3
    (d) 3 only

    Ramsar sites through map:

    source

    Sites in detail:

    #1. Ashtamudi Wetland

    • State: Kerala
    • Designated on: 19 August 2002
    • Area: 614 sq. Km
    • (Note: same format followed in all wetlands below, i.e. State, Designated on, Area)

    Details:

    • A natural backwater in Kollam district
    • River Kallada and Pallichal drain into it
    • It forms an estuary with Sea at Neendakara which is a famous fishing harbour in Kerala
    • National Waterway 3 passes through it
    • Most tastiest backwater fish in Kerala, the Karimeen of kanjiracode Kayal is from Ashtamudi Lake

    #2. Bhitarkanika Mangroves

    • Orissa
    • 19 August 2002
    • 650 sq. Km

    Details:

    • In 1975, an area of 672 km2 was declared the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary
    • The core area of the sanctuary, with an area of 145 km2, was declared Bhitarkanika National Park in September 1998
    • Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, which bounds the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary to the east, was created in September 1997, and encompasses Gahirmatha Beach and an adjacent portion of the Bay of Bengal
    • Bhitarkanika Mangroves were designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance in 2002
    • It is also famous for its salt water crocodiles and Olive ridley sea turtle

    #3. Bhoj Wetland

    • Madhya Pradesh
    • 19 August 2002
    • 32 sq. Km

    Details:

    • The Bhoj Wetland consists of two lakes located in the city of Bhopal
    • The two lakes are the Bhojtal and the Lower Lake, which lie to the west of the city center
    • It is a manmade reservoir
    • A total of more than 20,000 birds are observed annually
    • The Upper Lake acts as the lifeline of the city supplying 40% of its potable water
    • White storks, black-necked storks, bar-headed geese, spoonbills, etc., that have been rare sightings in the past, have started appearing
    • A recent phenomenon is the gathering of 100-120 sarus cranes in the lake
    • The largest bird of India, the sarus crane (Grus antigone) is known for its size, majestic flight and lifetime pairing

    #4. Chandra Taal

    • Himachal Pradesh
    • 8 November 2005
    • 0.49

    #5. Chilika Lake

    • Orissa
    • 1 October 1981
    • 1165

    Details:

    source
    • Chilka Lake (Chilika Lake) is a brackish water lagoon, spread over the Puri, Khurda and Ganjam districts of Odisha, at the mouth of the Daya River, flowing into the Bay of Bengal, covering an area of over 1,100 km2.
    • It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the second largest lagoon in the world
    • The lagoon hosts over 160 species of birds in the peak migratory season
    • Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea and other remote parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia, Central and southeast Asia, Ladakh and Himalayas come here
    • These birds travel great distances; migratory birds probably follow much longer routes than the straight lines, possibly up to 12,000 km, to reach Chilika Lake
    • In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention
    • In November 2002, the Ramsar Wetland Conservation Award was presented to the Chilika Development Authority for outstanding achievements in the field of restoration and wise use of wetlands and effective participation of local communities in these activities
    • White bellied sea eagles, greylag geese, purple moorhen, jacana, flamingos, egrets, gray and purple herons, Indian roller, storks, white ibis, spoonbills, brahminy ducks, shovellers, pintails, and more
    • Nalbana Island is the core area of the Ramsar designated wetlands of Chilika Lake
    • Nalbana was notified in 1987 and declared a bird sanctuary in 1973 under the Wildlife Protection Act
    • The Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) is the flagship species of Chilika lake
    • Chilka is home to the only known population of Irrawaddy dolphins in India and one of only two lagoons in the world that are home to this species
    • It is classified as critically endangered, in five of the six other places it is known to live

    #6. Deepor Beel

    • Assam
    • 19 August 2002
    • 40

    #7. East Calcutta Wetlands

    • West Bengal
    • 19 August 2002
    • 125

    Details:

    • World-renowned as a model of a multiple use wetland
    • The site’s resource recovery systems, developed by local people through the ages, have saved the city of Calcutta from the costs of constructing and maintaining waste water treatment plants
    • The wetland forms an urban facility for treating the city’s waste water and utilizing the treated water for pisciculture and agriculture, through the recovery of nutrients in an efficient manner- the water flows through fish ponds covering about 4,000 ha, and the ponds act as solar reactors and complete most of their bio-chemical reactions with the help of solar energy
    • Thus the system is described as one of the rare examples of environmental protection and development management where a complex ecological process has been adopted by the local farmers for mastering the resource recovery activities
    • The wetland provides about 150 tons of fresh vegetables daily, as well as some 10,500 tons of table fish per year, the latter providing livelihoods for about 50,000 people directly and as many again indirectly
    • The fish ponds are mostly operated by worker cooperatives, in some cases in legal associations and in others in cooperative groups whose tenurial rights are under legal challenge
    • A potential threat is seen in recent unauthorized use of the waste water outfall channels by industries which add metals to the canal sludge and threaten the edible quality of the fish and vegetables

    #8. Harike Wetland

    • Punjab
    • 23 March 1990
    • 41

    Details:

    • A shallow water reservoir with thirteen islands, at the confluence of two rivers
    • Dense floating vegetation covers 70% of the lake
    • An important site for breeding, wintering and staging birds, supporting over 200,000 Anatidae (ducks, geese, swans, etc.) during migration
    • The entire lake is leased on an annual basis to commercial fishery organizations

    #9. Hokera Wetland

    • Jammu and Kashmir
    • 8 November 2005
    • 13.75

    Details:

    • Located in the northwest Himalayan biogeographic province of Kashmir, back of the snow-draped Pir Panchal, Hokera wetland is only 10 km from scenic paradise of Srinagar
    • A natural perennial wetland contiguous to the Jhelum basin, it is the only site with remaining reedbeds of Kashmir and pathway of 68 waterfowl species like Large Egret, Great Crested Grebe, Little Cormorant, Common Shelduck, Tufted Duck and endangered White-eyed Pochard, coming from Siberia, China, Central Asia, and Northern Europe
    • It is an important source of food, spawning ground and nursery for fishes, besides offering feeding and breeding ground to a variety of water birds
    • Typical marshy vegetation complexes inhabit like Typha, Phragmites, Eleocharis, Trapa, and Nymphoides species ranging from shallow water to open water aquatic flora
    • Sustainable exploitation of fish, fodder and fuel is significant, despite water withdrawals since 1999
    • Potential threats include recent housing facilities, littered garbage, and demand for increasing tourist facilities

    #10. Kanjli Wetland

    • Punjab
    • 22 January 2002
    • 1.83

    Details:

    • A permanent stream, the Kali Bein, converted by construction of a small barrage in 1870 into a water storage area for irrigation purposes
    • The site fulfils Criteria 3 because of its importance in supporting a considerable diversity of aquatic, mesophytic, and terrestrial flora and fauna in the biogeographical region
    • Acts also as a key regulator of groundwater discharge and recharge with the seasons
    • By this means and by direct abstraction of water for irrigation by the local population, the site plays a crucial role in the agriculture which predominates on the surrounding fertile plain, with fewer pressures upon water supplies than elsewhere in the Punjab
    • The invasive water hyacinth is present and must be removed from time to time; increasing pollution levels, deforestation in the catchment area, and excessive grazing are seen as potential threats
    • The stream is considered to be the most significant in the state from the religious point of view, as it is associated with the first guru of the Sikhs, Shri Guru Nanak Dev Ji
    • The stream itself and surrounding marsh is under provincial ownership and surrounding areas privately owned.
    • The site is a center for environmental tourism and picnicking

    #11. Keoladeo National Park

    • Rajasthan
    • 1 October 1981
    • 28.73

    Details:

    • A complex of ten artificial, seasonal lagoons, varying in size, situated in a densely populated region
    • Vegetation is a mosaic of scrub and open grassland that provides habitat for breeding, wintering and staging migratory birds
    • Also supported are five species of ungulates, four species of cats, and two species of primates, as well as diverse plants, fish and reptiles
    • The canal provides water for agriculture and domestic consumption
    • Cattle and water buffalo graze on the site
    • A field research station exists
    • Placed on the Montreux Record in 1990 due to ‘water shortage and an unbalanced grazing regime’
    • Additionally, the invasive growth of the grass Paspalum distichum has changed the ecological character of large areas of the site, reducing its suitability for certain waterbird species, notably the Siberian crane

    #12. Kolleru Lake

    • Andhra Pradesh
    • 19 August 2002
    • 901
    • It is a bird sanctuary

    #13. Loktak Lake

    • Manipur
    • 23 March 1990
    • 266

    source

    Details:

    • Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in the north-eastern region of the country
    • It is famous for the phumdis (heterogeneous mass of vegetation, soil, and organic matters at various stages of decomposition) floating over it
    • Keibul Lamjao, the only floating national park in the world floats over it
    • It is located near Moirang, Bishnupur district in Manipur
    • The etymology of Loktak is Lok = stream and tak = the end
    • The Keibugl Lamjao National Park, which is the last natural refuge of the endangered ‘Sangai’ or Manipur brow-antlered deer (‘Cervus eldi eldi’), one of three subspecies of Eld’s deer, covering an area of 40 km2 (15 sq mi), is situated in the southeastern shores of this lake and is the largest of all the phumdis in the lake
    • This place is a global tourist destination
    • ‘Sendra tourist hub’ (a small hillock) is located at Moirang, around 58 km from the heart of the city

    #14. Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary

    • Gujarat
    • 24 September 2012
    • 123

    Details:

    • A natural freshwater lake (a relict sea) that is the largest natural wetland in the Thar Desert Biogeographic Province
    • Represents a dynamic environment with salinity and depth varying depending on rainfall
    • The area is home to 210 species of birds, with an average 174,128 individuals recorded there during the winter and 50,000 in the summer
    • It is an important stopover site within the Central Asia Flyway, with globally threatened species such as the critically endangered Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius) and the vulnerable Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris) stopping over at the site during migration, while the vulnerable Sarus Crane (Grus antigone) takes refuge there during summer when other water bodies are dry
    • The wetland is also a lifeline for a satellite population of the endangered Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur) which uses this area in the dry season
    • Local communities heavily rely on the lake as it provides them with a source of drinking water and water for irrigation, as well as an important source of income from fishing for Catla fish (Catla Catla) and Rohu (Labeo rohita)
    • An average of 75,000 tourists visit the wetland annually

    #15. Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary

    • Tamil Nadu
    • 19 August 2002
    • 385

    Details:

    • One of the last remnants of Dry Evergreen Forests
    • Habitat: Dry Evergreen Forests, Mangrove & Wetlands
    • Winter Migrants : Spoon Billed Sandpiper, Greater Flamingos
    • Threats: Agricultural & Shrimp farm runoff =>High concentration of DDT & HCH in their tissue

    #16. Pong Dam Lake

    • Himachal Pradesh
    • 19 August 2002
    • 156.62

    Details:

    • A water storage reservoir created in 1975 on the Beas River in the low foothills of the Himalaya on the northern edge of the Indo-Gangetic plain
    • The RIS notes that at a time when wetlands in northern India are getting reduced due to extensive drainage and reclamation, the avian habitats formed by the creation of the Pong Dam assume a great significance
    • Given the site’s location on the trans-Himalayan flyway, more than 220 bird species have been identified, with 54 species of waterfowl
    • Hydrological values include monsoon-season flood prevention, both in the surroundings and downstream due to water regulation, groundwater recharge, silt trapping and prevention of soil erosion; electricity is generated for this and neighboring states, and irrigation water is being channeled to fertile areas of the Punjab and Rajasthan deserts.
    • Low-yield subsistence fishing existed prior to impoundment, but since, a lucrative fishery has grown up, with 27 fish species and a yield increasing markedly each year- some 1800 fishermen now have direct employment and 1000 families benefit indirectly
    • A nature conservation education centre is found on the island of Ransar or Ramsar
    • Recent management strategies have shifted away from law enforcement and use restrictions towards more participatory approaches and community awareness, and the site is well suited to ‘community-based ecotourism’

    #17. Renuka Lake

    • Himachal Pradesh
    • 8 November 2005
    • 0.2

    Details:

    • A natural wetland with freshwater springs and inland subterranean karst formations, fed by a small stream flowing from the lower Himalayan out to the Giri river
    • The lake is home to at least 443 species of fauna and 19 species of ichthyofauna representative of lacustrine ecosystems like Puntius, Labeo, Rasbora, Channa
    • Prominent vegetation ranges from dry deciduous like Shorea Robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, Dalbergia sissoo to hydrophytes
    • There are 103 species of birds of which 66 are residents, e.g. Crimson-breasted barbet, Mayna, Bulbul, Pheasants, Egrets, Herons, Mallards and Lapwing
    • Among ungulates Sambhar, Barking deer and Ghorals are also abundant in the area
    • The lake has high religious significance and is named after the mother of Hindu sage Parshuram, and is thus visited by thousands of pilgrims and tourists
    • Conservation measures so far include community awareness, and prevention of silt influx from eroded slopes and 50 ha. of massive plantation in the catchment
    • The site is managed by the Shimla Forest Department, Himachal Pradesh

    #18. Ropar Wetland

    • Punjab
    • 22 January 2002
    • 13.65

    Details:

    • A manmade wetland of lake and river formed by the 1952 construction of a barrage for diversion of water from the Sutlej River for drinking and irrigation supplies
    • The site is an important breeding place for the nationally protected Smooth Indian Otter, Hog Deer, Sambar, and several reptiles, and the endangered Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is thought to be present
    • Some 35 species of fish play an important role in the food chain, and about 150 species of local and migratory birds are supported
    • Local fisheries are economically significant, and wheat, rice, sugar cane, and sorghum are cultivated in the surrounding area
    • Deforested local hills leading to siltation, and increasing industrialization causing an inflow of pollutants, are potential threats, and invasive weeds are a further cause for concern
    • Nature lovers, birdwatchers, swimmers and boaters visit the site in considerable numbers

    #19. Rudrasagar Lake

    • Tripura
    • 8 November 2005
    • 2.4

    #20. Sambhar Lake

    • Rajasthan
    • 23 March 1990
    • 240

    Details:

    • The Sambhar Salt Lake, India’s largest inland salt lake
    • Sambhar has been designated as a Ramsar site (recognized wetland of international importance) because the wetland is a key wintering area for tens of thousands of flamingos and other birds that migrate from northern Asia
    • The specialized algae and bacteria growing in the lake provide striking water colours and support the lake ecology that, in turn, sustains the migrating waterfowl
    • There is other wildlife in the nearby forests, where Nilgai move freely along with deer and foxes

    #21. Sasthamkotta Lake

    • Kerala
    • 19 August 2002
    • 3.73

    Details:

    • It is the largest freshwater lake in Kerala, situated in Kollam district
    • River Kallada had a unique replenishing system through a bar of paddy field which has now disappeared due to indiscriminate sand and clay mining
    • The lake is now depleting due to destruction of replenishing mechanism

    #22. Surinsar-Mansar Lakes

    • Jammu and Kashmir
    • 8 November 2005
    • 3.5

    #23. Tsomoriri

    • Jammu and Kashmir
    • 19 August 2002
    • 120

    Details:

    • A freshwater to brackish lake lying at 4,595m above sea level, with wet meadows and borax-laden wetlands along the shores
    • The site is said to represent the only breeding ground outside of China for one of the most endangered cranes, the Black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis), and the only breeding ground for Bar-headed geese in India
    • The Great Tibetan Sheep or Argali (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) and Tibetan Wild Ass (Equus kiang) are endemic to the Tibetan plateau, of which the Changthang is the westernmost part
    • The barley fields at Korzok have been described as the highest cultivated land in the world
    • With no outflow, evaporation in the arid steppe conditions causes varying levels of salinity
    • Ancient trade routes and now major trekking routes pass the site
    • The 400-year-old Korzok monastery attracts many tourists, and the wetland is considered sacred by local Buddhist communities and the water is not used by them
    • The local community dedicated Tsomoriri as a WWF Sacred Gift for the Living Planet in recognition of WWF-India’s project work there
    • The rapidly growing attraction of the recently opened area to western tourists (currently 2500 per summer) as an ‘unspoilt destination’ with pristine high desert landscapes and lively cultural traditions brings great promise but also potential threats to the ecosystem

    #24. Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch)

    • Uttar Pradesh
    • 8 November 2005
    • 265.9

    Details:

    • A shallow river stretch of the great Ganges with intermittent small stretches of deep-water pools and reservoirs upstream from barrages
    • The river provides habitat for IUCN Red listed Ganges River Dolphin, Gharial, Crocodile, 6 species of turtles, otters, 82 species of fish and more than hundred species of birds
    • Major plant species, some of which have high medicinal values, include Dalbergia sissoo, Saraca indica, Eucalyptus globulus, Ficus bengalensis, Dendrocalamus strictus, Tectona grandis, Azadirachta indica and aquatic Eichhorina
    • This river stretch has high Hindu religious importance for thousands of pilgrims and is used for cremation and holy baths for spiritual purification
    • Major threats are sewage discharge, agricultural runoff, and intensive fishing
    • Conservation activities carried out are plantation to prevent bank erosion, training on organic farming, and lobbying to ban commercial fishing

    #25. Vembanad-Kol Wetland

    • Kerala
    • 19 August 2002
    • 1512.5

    Details:

    • Largest lake of Kerala, spanning across Alappuzha, Kottayam, and Ernakulam districts
    • Famous tourist locations like Alappuzha and Kumarakom, known for house boats falls here
    • River mouths of Pamba-Achenkovil rivers in Vembanad forms one of the unique wetland topography of Kerala, the Kuttanad
    • It is below sea level and is famous for exotic fish varieties and Paddy fields that are below sea level

    #26. Wular Lake

    • Jammu and Kashmir
    • 23 March 1990
    • 189

    Details:

    • The largest freshwater lake in India with extensive marshes of emergent and floating vegetation, particularly water chestnut, that provide an important source of revenue for the State Government and fodder for domestic livestock
    • The lake supports an important fishing industry and is a valuable source of water for irrigation and domestic use
    • The area is important for wintering, staging and breeding birds
    • Human activities include rice cultivation and tree farming

    Tasks for you:

    1. Find out the details about wetlands which have no description and put them in comments

    2. Discuss the importance & threats faced by major wetlands in India and measures needed to deal with these threats

    Published with inputs from Swapnil