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  • Understand Everything About a River Drainage & Drainage Patterns

    The river system of an area is called drainage. The area drained by a single river system is called the drainage basin.

    The word watershed is sometimes used interchangeably with drainage basin or catchment. Ridges and hills that separate two watersheds are called the drainage divide.

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    Terminology for the study of rivers

    • Drainage basin – the area of land drained by a river.
    • Catchment area – the area within the drainage basin.
    • Watershed – the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two drainage basins.
    • Source – The beginning or start of a river.
    • Confluence – the point at which two rivers or streams join.
    • Tributary – a stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or river.
    • Mouth – the point where the river comes to the end, usually when entering a sea.

    Drainage Patterns:

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    Depending on the slope of land, underlying rock structure and climate of an area, the streams in a drainage basin form certain patterns. Different types of drainage pattern are as follows:

    #1. Dendritic Drainage Pattern:

    When the river channel follows the slope of the terrain, it develops dendritic pattern. The stream and its tributaries resemble the branches of a tree. Hence, it is called dendritic pattern.

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    #2. Trellis Drainage Pattern:

    When a river is joined by its tributaries at almost right angles, it develops a trellis pattern. Trellis pattern develops where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to each other.

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    #3. Rectangular Drainage Pattern:

    When rocks are strongly joined, rectangular pattern develops.

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    #4. Radial Drainage Pattern:

    • When the streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome like structure, a radial pattern is developed.
    • It is important to note that a combination of different patterns may develop in the same drainage basin.

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    A Quick Recap

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  • 16 Nov 2016 | Back2Basics: Daily Static and CA Revision using News

    Everyday we read news, but do we do more than read it? The best way to learn from news is to find the issues and facts which we don’t know and research them. Starting today we will try to list some topics to help you do that.

    Let’s call this the new avatar of #Back2Basics

    Following topics are based on today’s news –

     

    1. What are – piezoelectric materials, nanogenerators, wearable electronics – PRELIMS

    2. What is the India BPO Promotion Scheme? It is under the Digital India Scheme, so make notes on Digital India also. – PRELIMS + MAINS

    3. There is news on CPI and WPI today. What are CPI and WPI? Revise your notes if you have them, or make notes on them. – PRELIMS + MAINS

    4. ADB is giving a $500 million loan. Research ADB. – PRELIMS + MAINS

    Also note that it is for India’s largest bridge. What is the largest bridge at the moment in India? Where is it located? – PRELIMS

    5. News on Russia-Pak-China forum. Research the Heart of Asia Conference mentioned in the news. Who are the members, what is its purpose etc. – PRELIMS + MAINS

    6. The SC has refused to stay the demonetization move. List the Part, Chapter and Articles related to the Supreme Court in the Indian Constitution. – PRELIMS + MAINS

    7. Centre has increased MSP for Rabi crops – what crops come under Rabi? What months does it correspond to? – PRELIMS

    8. Banks will be using special ink to prevent people from changing old notes repeatedly. This ink is also used in elections. What makes the ink so special? – PRELIMS

     

    Make sure to leave some of the answers and your views on this initiative in the comments.

  • The 5 Types of Natural Vegetation in India and Their Charactersitics

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    What is natural vegetation?

    It refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time (also called as virgin vegetation).

    • Cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation
    • The virgin vegetation, which are purely Indian are known as endemic or indigenous species but those which have come from outside India are termed as exotic plants.
    • The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular region or period. The species of animals are referred to as fauna.

    Types of Natural Vegetation in India

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    The following are the principal types of natural vegetation of India:

    (1) Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests,

    (2) Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests,

    (3) Dry Deciduous Forests and Scrubs,

    (4) Semi Desert and Desert Vegetation,

    (5) Tidal or Mangrove Forests and

    #1. Tropical Evergreen Forests

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    • The tropical evergreen forests usually occur in areas receiving more than 200 cm of rainfall and having a temperature of 15 to 30 degrees Celsius.
    • They occupy about seven per cent of the earth’s land surface and harbours more than half of the world’s plants and animals.
    • They are found mostly near the equator. Region is warm and wet throughout the year.
    • Trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above.
    • It has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multilayered structure.

    In India, evergreen forests are found in the western slopes of the Western Ghats in States such as Kerala and Karnataka. They are also found in hills of Jaintia and Khasi. Some of the trees found in Indian Tropical Forests are rosewood, mahogany and ebony. Bamboos and reeds are also common.

    Common animals found in these forests are elephants, monkey, lemur and deer. The one horned rhinoceros are found in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal.

    #2. Tropical Deciduous Forests:

    • They are the most widespread forests of India.
    • Also called the monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm.
    • Trees of this forest ­type shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer.
    • On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous.

    Moist deciduous forests:

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    • It found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm.
    • Exist mostly in the eastern part of the country – northeastern states, along the foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.
    • Teak is the most dominant species of this forest.
    • Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair , kusum, arjun, mulberry are other commercially important species.

    Dry Deciduous Forests:

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    • The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having rainfall between 100 cm and 70cm.
    • These forests are found in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
    • There are open stretches in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, and Neem grow.
    • A large part of this region has been cleared for cultivation and some parts are used for grazing.
    • Common animals found are lion, tiger , pig, deer and elephant. Variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises are also found here.

    Difference between Dry & Moist Deciduous Forests

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    Difference between Evergreen and Deciduous Forests

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    #3. The Thorn Forests and Scrubs:

    • In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall, the natural vegetation consists of thorny trees and bushes.
    • Found in the north­western part of the country including semi­arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
    • Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species.
    • Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get moisture.
    • The stems are succulent to conserve water.
    • Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation

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    #4. Montane Forests:

    • In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation.
    • As such, there is a succession of natural vegetation belts in the same order as we see from the tropical to the tundra region.
    • The wet temperate type of forests are found between a height of1000 and 2000 metres.
    • Evergreen broad­leaf trees such as oaks and chestnuts predominate.
    • Between 1500 and 3000 metres, temperate forests containing coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar, are found. and they cover mostly the southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and north­east India.
    • At higher elevations, temperate grasslands are common.
    • At high altitudes, generally more than 3,600 metres above sea­ level, temperate forests and grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation.
    • Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of these forests.
    • They get progressively stunted as they approach the snow­line and are used extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals.
    • At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation.
    • Common animals found in these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted dear , wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.

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    #5. Mangrove Forests:

    • Found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides.
    • Mud and silt get accumulated on such coasts.
    • Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under water.
    • The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such vegetation.
    • In the Ganga Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber.
    • Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta.
    • Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests.
    • Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are also found in these forests.

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  • The 4 Types of Mountains and their Detailed Charactersitics

    Landform is a natural feature of the earth’s surface. The surface of the earth varies from one place to another. The main landforms are; mountains, plateau and plains. There are two processes which lead to formation of different landforms. These processes are; internal process and external process.

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    Internal Process: The earth beneath your feet is continuously moving. The movement of earth’s surface results in internal process. The internal process results in a portion of the earth’s surface getting elevated or getting sunk.

    External Process: Continuous wearing down and rebuilding of the earth’s surface is the result of external process.

    Mountains:

    • A mountain is the natural elevation of the earth’s surface.
    • A mountain may be narrow at top and broad at the base.
    • The elevation of mountain is considerably more than that of surrounding area.
    • We know that temperature reduces with increase in altitude.
    • Due to this, very high mountains are usually covered with snow.

    Mountain Range: When mountains are arranged in a line, then it is called a mountain range. Some of the mountain systems contain ranges spread over hundreds of kilometers.

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    Types of Mountains:

    There are 4 types of mountains, viz. fold mountains, block mountains and volcanic mountains.

    #1. Fold Mountains:

    The formation of fold mountains

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    1. Where an area of sea separates two plates, sediments settle on the sea floor in depressions called geosynclines. These sediments gradually become compressed into sedimentary rock.
    2. When the two plates move towards each other again, the layers of sedimentary rock on the sea floor become crumpled and folded.
    3. Eventually the sedimentary rock appears above sea level as a range of fold mountains.

    Where the rocks are folded upwards, they are called anticlines. Where the rocks are folded downwards, they are called synclines. Severely folded and faulted rocks are called nappes.

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    Fold mountains are created through a process called orogeny. An orogenic event takes millions of years to create a fold mountain. When a tectonic plate gets pressure from two sides, it gets folded. Some of its portion becomes elevated and forms the mountains.

    The depressions form the valleys. The Himalayas, The Andes and the Alps are examples of Fold Mountain. They are the young mountains of the world and hence they have some of the highest peaks of the world.

    #2. Block Mountains:

    When large areas are broken and displaced vertically, Block Mountains are formed. In this case, the uplifted blocks are called horsts. On the other hand, the lowered blocks are called graben.

    Examples of Block Mountains are; the Rhine Valley and the Vosges mountain in Europe.

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    #3. Volcanic Mountains:

    A mountain formed due to volcanic activity is called Volcanic Mountain. Examples of Volcanic Mountains are; Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Fujiyama.

    Andaman and Nicobar islands in India are the tip of the volcanic mountains which rise from the ocean floor.

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    #4. Dome Mountains:

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    Dome mountains form when large globs of magma float up from beneath the crust and push up surface rocks, creating a rounded swelling in the crust. Once the magma cools, it creates a large dome of harder rock under the surface, which erosion sometimes reveals.

  • Classifications of Rocks: Sedimentary, Igneous and Metamorphic

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    What are the 3 basic types of rocks?

    Just as any person can be put into one of two main categories of human being, all rocks can be put into one of three fundamentally different types of rocks. They are as follows:

    #1. Igneous Rocks

    • Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which form directly from the cooling of magma.
    • This is an exothermic process (it loses heat) and involves a phase change from the liquid to the solid state.
    • The earth is made of igneous rock – at least at the surface where our planet is exposed to the coldness of space.
    • Igneous rocks are given names based upon two things:
      • composition (what they are made of) and
      • texture (how big the crystals are)

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    The word igneous is derived from the Latin word Ignis which means fire. The rocks formed by the solidification on the cooling of molten magma, are called igneous rocks.

    Depending on where the molten magma cools, they are of the following types:

    • Intrusive Rocks
    • Extrusive Rocks

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    When the molten magma cools deep inside the earth’s crust, intrusive igneous rocks are formed. They:

    • Cool down slowly
    • Form large grains
    • Granite is intrusive igneous rock. Grinding stones used to prepare paste / powder of spices and grains are made of granite.

    Extrusive Igneous Rocks:

    • When the molten magma (lava) comes on the earth’s surface.
    • It rapidly cools down and becomes solid.
    • Rocks formed in such a manner on the crust are called extrusive igneous rocks.
    • They have a very fine grained structure.
    • Basalt is an example of extrusive igneous rocks. The Deccan Plateau is made up of basalt rocks.

    #2. Sedimentary Rocks

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    • These rocks get their name from the Latin word sedimentum which means settle down.
    • These rocks are formed by the settling down of sediments.
    • Sediments are the smaller particles / fragments that are formed by the breaking down of rocks when they roll down, crack and hit each other.
    • These sediments are transported by wind, water etc.
    • These sediments; when compressed and hardened; form sedimentary rocks.
    • Sandstone is an example of sedimentary rock. It is made up of grains of sand.
    • The sedimentary rocks may also contain fossils of plants, animals and other micro – organisms that once lived on them.

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    #3. Metamorphic Rocks:

    The Greek word ‘metamorphose’ which means change of form, is the root of the word metamorphic. In other words, these are the rocks that are formed when the igneous and sedimentary rocks change their form under the following two circumstances:

    • Great heat and
    • Great pressure

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    The following are the examples of metamorphic rocks:

    • Slate: Clay becomes slate after metamorphosis [Texture = Foliated]
    • Marble: Limestone becomes marble after metamorphosis [Texture = Non-Foliated]

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    #4. What is a Rock Cycle?

    The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock.

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    NOTE: This lesson forms a part of the series on Physical Geographic Lectures – Click to read the collection

  • The Changing Earth: Phenomena of Weathering and Erosion

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    The landscape is continuously being worn away by two processes:

    1. Weathering
    2. Erosion

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    Understanding Weathering

    • Weathering involves 2 processes that often work in concert to decompose rocks.
    • Both processes occur in place.
    • No movement is involved in weathering.

    Chemical weathering involves a chemical change in at least some of the minerals within a rock.

    Mechanical weathering involves physically breaking rocks into fragments without changing the chemical make-up of the minerals within it.

    It’s important to keep in mind that weathering is a surface or near-surface process. As you know, metamorphism also produces chemical changes in rocks, but metamorphic chemical changes occur at depth where either the temperature and/or pressure are significantly higher than conditions found on the Earth’s surface.

    As soon as a rock particle (loosened by one of the two weathering processes) moves, we call it erosion. Mass wasting is simply movement down slope due to gravity. Rock falls, slumps, and debris flows are all examples of mass wasting. We call it erosion if the rock particle is moved by some flowing agent such as air, water or ice.

    So, the mantra is:If a particle is loosened, chemically or mechanically, but stays put, call it weathering. Once the particle starts moving, call it erosion.

    Understanding Erosion and Its Agents

    Erosion: As mentioned earlier, it is the wearing away of landscape by different agents like wind, water and ice. The eroded material is carried away or transported by water, wind, etc. and eventually deposited. Different landforms are created on the earth’s surface because of erosion and deposition.

    A. Role of water in erosion/ deposition:

    #1. River: The running water of the river erodes the landscape.

    #2. Waterfall: 

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    • Waterfalls often form in the upper stages of a river where it flows over different bands of rock.
    • It erodes soft rock more quickly than hard rock and this may lead to the creation of a waterfall.
    • Formation of a waterfall: The soft rock erodes more quickly, undercutting the hard rock.

    #3. Ox Bow Lake:

    • An oxbow lake is a lake that forms when a meander in a river is cut off from the rest of the river.
    • It is shaped like a crescent, or the bow of an oxen yoke.
    • A river meanders because of obstacles and patterns of erosion and deposition of sediments.

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    • As the river enters the plain, it twists and turns forming large bends called meanders.
    • Due to continuous erosion and deposition along the sides of the meander, the ends of the meander loop come closer and closer.
    • When this happens, over a course of time, the meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a cut – off lake

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    #4. Floodplain:

    • Flood plains are made by a meander eroding sideways as it travels downstream.
    • When a river breaks its banks and floods, it leaves behind layers of alluvium (silt).
    • These gradually build up to create the floor of the flood plain.

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    #5. Leeves:

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    • In times of flood a river may overflow its banks and spread over the flood plain.
    • As it does so it loses energy and deposits its material across the flood plain.
    • As it takes more energy to carry larger particles, these are deposited first and therefore build up along the banks of the river to form a natural embankment which are called levees.
    • The levee will become higher every time the river floods.

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    #6. Delta:

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    • When the river approaches the sea, it becomes very slow in its flow and begins to break up into a number of streams called distributaries.
    • The speed of the river water is so less that it starts depositing its load.
    • Each distributary forms its own mouth.
    • A collection of sediments from all the mouths forms a delta

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    Why do rivers have deltas?

    The three main types of Deltas are:

    #7. Sea Waves:

    The erosion and deposition by water in the form of sea waves leads to the formation of coastal landforms. Some coastal landforms are as follows:

    • Sea Caves
    • Sea Arches
    • Stacks
    • Sea Cliff
    • Beaches

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    • Seawaves continuously strike at the rocks. This leads to cracks. The cracks become larger and wider overtime. Thus hollow like caves are formed on the rocks. They are called sea caves.
    • As these cavities become bigger and bigger, only the roof of the caves remains, hence forming sea arches.
    • The erosion further breaks the roof and only the walls remain. These wall­ like features are called stacks.
    • Sea cliff is the steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water. The sea waves deposit sediments along the shores forming beaches.

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    B. Role of ice in erosion/ deposition:

    Glaciers are ‘rivers’ of ice that too erode the landscape by bulldozing soil and stones to expose the solid rock below. They create:

    #1. Deep hollows

    #2. Lakes in mountains: These are formed when the ice melts and the deep hollows get filled up with water

    #3. Glacial moraines: These are formed by the deposition of the material carried by the glacier such as rocks big and small, sand and silt.

    A moraine is any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris (soil and rock) that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions on Earth (i.e. a past glacial maximum), through geomorphological processes.

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    Different types of moraine:

    • Terminal moraines are found at the terminus or the furthest (end) point reached by a glacier.
    • Lateral moraines are found deposited along the sides of the glacier.
    • Medial moraines are found at the junction between two glaciers.
    • Ground moraines are disorganised piles of rocks of various shapes, sizes and of differing rock types.

    B. Role of wind in erosion/ deposition:

    An active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts is the wind. The landforms in the desert are:

    #1. Mushroom Rocks:

    • In deserts, we can see rocks in the shape of mushrooms called mushroom rocks.
    • The mushroom has a narrow base and a wider top.
    • These rocks also have such a shape because the winds erode the lower section of the rock more than the upper part.

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    #2. Sand Dunes:

    • When the wind blows, it lifts and transports sand from one place to another.
    • When it stops blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill – like structures called sand dunes.

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    #3. Loess:

    • When the grains of sand are very fine and light, the wind can carry it over very long distances.
    • When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is called loess.
    • Large deposit of loess is found in China.

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    NOTE: This lesson forms a part of the series on Physical Geographic Lectures – Click to read the collection

  • The 8 Major Types of Farming Systems in India

    Discuss geography concepts 1-on-1 with IAS mentors
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    Based primarily on nature of land, climatic characteristics and available irrigational facilities, the farmers in India practise different types of farming.

    1. Subsistence Farming:

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    • Majority of farmers in the country practise subsistence farming.
    • It is characterised by small and scattered land holdings and use of primitive tools.
    • As the farmers are poor, they do not use fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds in their fields to the extent they should do.
    • Facilities like electricity and irrigation are generally not available to them.

    Features of Subsistence Farming:

    • The whole family works on the farm
    • Most of the work is done manually
    • The farms are small
    • Tradition methods of farming are followed
    • Yield is not very high
    • Most of the yield is consumed by the family with very little surplus for the family

    2. Shifting Agriculture:

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    • In this type of agriculture, first of all a piece of forest land is cleared by felling trees and burning of trunks and branches.
    • After the land is cleared, crops are grown for two to three years and then the land is abandoned as the fertility of the soil decreases.
    • The farmers then move to new areas and the process is repeated.
    • Dry paddy, maize, millets and vegetables are the crops commonly grown in this type of farming.

    This practice is known by different name in different regions of India like:

    1. Jhum in Assam,
    2. Ponam in Kerala,
    3. Podu in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha and
    4. Bewar masha penda and Bera in various parts of Madhya Pradesh.
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    As far as possible governments have tried to discourage this practice of cultivation by tribals due to wasteful nature such as soil erosion caused by it, when soil erosion caused by it, when soils are not under cultivation.

    3. Plantation Agriculture:

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    • Plantation farming is bush or tree farming. It was introduced by the British in the 19th century.
    • It is a single crop farming of rubber, tea, coffee, cocoa, spices, coconut and fruit crops like apples, grapes, oranges, etc.
    • It is capital intensive and demands good managerial ability, technical know-how, sophisticated machinery, fertilisers, irrigation, and transport facilities.
    • Plantation agriculture is an export-oriented agriculture. Most of the crops grown in plantation agriculture have a life cycle of more than two years.
    • Natural rubber, coconuts, oil palm, tea, cocoa, and coffee are all tree crops and take years to mature, but afterwards they are productive for long periods.
    • Plantation agriculture is confined within tropical areas, i.e., both sides of the equator. Plantations exist on every continent possessing a tropical climate.

    Some of the plantations like tea, coffee and rubber have a processing factory within the farm itself or close to it.

    This type of agriculture has developed in hilly areas of north-eastern India, sub-Himalayan West Bengal and in Nilgiri, Anamalai and Cardamom hills in peninsular India.

    4. Intensive Farming:

    In areas where irrigation has been possible, the farmers use fertilisers and pesticides on large scale. They have also brought their land under high yielding variety of seeds. They have mechanised agriculture by introducing machines in various processes of farming.

    Also known as industrial agriculture, it is characterized by a low fallow ratio and higher use of inputs such as capital and labour per unit land area. This is in contrast to traditional agriculture in which the inputs per unit land are lower.

    Remember Intensive Agriculture Development program?

    Intensive Agriculture Development program (IADP) was the first major experiment of Indian government in the field of agriculture and it was also known as a “package programme” as it was based upon the package approach.

    The programme was launched in 1961 after the Community Development Programme lost sheen. The core philosophy was to provide loan for seeds and fertilizers to farmers. Intensive Agriculture Development program was started with the assistance of Ford Foundation.

    The IADP was expanded and later a new Intensive Agriculture Area programme (IAAP) was launched to develop special harvest in agriculture area.

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    The IADP was expanded and later a new Intensive Agriculture Area programme (IAAP) was launched to develop special harvest in agriculture area.

    5. Dry Agriculture:

    Dry farming or dry-land farming may be defined as a practice of growing crops without irrigation in areas which receive an annual rainfall of 750 mm – 500 mm or even less.

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    Key elements of effective combat with perils of Dryland agriculture

    • Capturing and Conservation of Moisture
    • Effective Use of Available Moisture
    • Soil Conservation
    • Control of Input Costs

    Dryland agriculture is subject to high variability in areas sown, yields and output. These variations are the results of aberrations in weather conditions, especially rainfall. Alternate crop strategies have been worked out for important regions of the country:

    6. Mixed and Multiple Agriculture:

    • Mixed farming is referred to cultivation of crops and raising of animals simultaneously.
    • The multiple farming is used to denote the practice of growing two or more crops together.
    • In such case a number of crops having varying maturing periods are sown at the same time.
    • This practice is followed is areas having good rainfall or facilities of irrigation.
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    7. Crop Rotation:

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    This refers to growing of number of Crops one after the other in a fixed rotation to maintain the fertility of the soil. The rotation of crops may be complete in a year in some of the areas while it may involve more than one year’s time is others.

    • Pulses or any leguminous crop is grown after the cereal crops.
    • Legumes have the ability of fixing nitrogen to the soil.
    • Highly fertilizer intensive crops like sugarcane or tobacco are rotated with cereal crops.
    • The selection of crops for rotation depends upon the local soil conditions and the experience and the understanding of the farmers.

    Good time to re-visit the nitrogen cycle again!

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    8. Terrace Cultivation:

    • The hill and mountain slopes are cut to form terraces and the land is used in the same way as in permanent agriculture.
    • Since the availability of flat land is limited terraces are made to provide small patch of level land.
    • Soil erosion is also checked due to terrace formation on hill slopes.
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    Questions from Previous Year’s Prelims

    1. Which of the following is the chief characteristic of ‘mixed farming’? [UPSC 2012]

    A. Cultivation of both cash crops and food crops
    B. Cultivation of two or more crops in the same field
    C. Rearing of animals and cultivation of crops together
    D. None of the above.

    Ans: C

    2. With reference to Indian agriculture, which one of the following statements is correct? [UPSC 2002]

    A. About 90 per cent of the area under pulses in India is rainfed.
    B. The share of pulses in the gross cropped area at the national level has double in the last two decades
    C. India accounts for about 15 per cent of the total area under rice in the world
    D. Rice occupies about 34 per cent of the gross cropped area of India

    Ans: A

    3. Which one of the following agricultural practices is eco-friendly ? [UPSC 1999]

    A. Organic farming
    B. Shifting cultivation
    C. Cultivation of high-yielding varieties
    D. Growing plants in glass-houses

    Ans: A

    4. What can be the impact of excessive/ inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture? [UPSC 2015]
    1. Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can occur.
    2. increase in the acidity of soil can take place.
    3. Leaching of nitrate to the groundwater can occur.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    A. 1 and 3 only
    B. 2 only
    C. 2 and 3 only
    D. 1, 2 and 3

    Ans: C

    5. In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated with which of the following? [UPSC 2015]
    1.Terrace cultivation
    2. Deforestation
    3. Tropical climate
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    A. I and 2 only
    B. 2 only
    C. 1 and 3 only
    D. 1, 2 and 3

    Ans: B

    Discuss geography concepts 1-on-1 with IAS mentors

     

  • Economics | Budget Deficits Explained

    As the word suggests, it refers to the amount by which Spending exceeds Income.
    There are 3 types of Budget Deficits –
    1. Revenue Deficit(RD), 2. Fiscal Deficit (FD) and 3. Primary Deficit(PD).
    These cannot be understood without a basic knowledge of the Budget. In a separate note, we will see their relationship with other terms like Balance of Payment ( BoP ), Current Account Deficit (CAD), etc and understand the concept of twin deficits. However in this note, we restrict our conversation to Union Budget.

    I. Union Budget

    The Union Budget is divided into 2 Budgets
    1. Revenue Budget (RD)
    2. Capital Budget (CB)
    Why is it split this way?
    To understand this, let’s assume a hypothetical situation where
    A. Your monthly take-home salary is 50K. Your monthly consumption is 10K (includes basic necessities like groceries, water, electricity, etc.).
    B. At the same time, you decided to buy a house for 100K, sold shares worth 50K and took a loan of 10K.
    Now, lets examine the components of A –
    1. It has income that’s more or less fixed every month(your salary), you do not draw down on your assets to earn this money i.e. Household revenue receipt.
    2.  It contains expenditures that are recurring i.e. they happen every month and you have very little control over them (changes in your lifestyle will impact them). Moreover no assets/capital is created by these expenditures i.e. Household Revenue Expenditure.
    Together, they constitute your household revenue budget.
    Let’s examine components of B  now–
    1. This income from loan is a liability as you have to return it. It’s not something you have earned. It’s borrowing, it’s a debt. Moreover, its not fixed as you won’t be taking a loan every month. It’s a one time receipt. Since it creates debt, it is debt creating capital receipt.
    2. Shares you sold gave you 50K. You have lost your asset now. It’s also one time payment as you can’t sell same shares again( you have already sold your stocks). It does not create debt i.e. non debt creating capital receipt. Together, they constitute household capital receipt.
    3. B also has expenditure that leads to asset creation ( you can sell your house to recover money, you can give it on rent and earn regular income) i.e. Household capital expenditure.  Part B constitutes household Capital Budget
     ‘Analyzing your monthly finances in the above manner makes it very clear as to how much money you owe, what assets you bought and sold and what’s your regular expenditure. Any other classification would miss all these important components. Extrapolating this to the Budget –
    A represents Revenue Budget and B represents Capital Budget.
    Formally defining,
    RB consists of Revenue Receipts(RR) and Revenue Expenditure(RE) met from these RR. Where
    RR = Income that neither creates liability( borrowing) nor reduces asset( divestment, auction of natural resources),
It includes Tax + Non Tax Revenues( Service charges, dividends from PSUs, interest govt. receives, Grants in aid etc)
    RE = All expenditure that doesn’t lead to capital/asset creation.
    CB consists Capital Receipts(CR) and Capital Expenditure (CE). Further CR has 4 components(becomes important for prelims).
    CR = CRa + CRb + CRc + CRd where,
CRa = Proceeds from Disinvestments say of PSUs.
CRb = Recovery of past loans.
CRc = Sale of assets/capital by the Govt for eg. Coal Blocks, 2G,3G, etc.
CRd = Loans raised by Government (on which it has to pay interest)
    Similarly, CE consist of capital expenditure on acquisition of assets/capital like
    CE = CEa + CEb + CEc where,
CEa = Loans given to States and UTs
CEb = Repayment of Past Loans
CEc = Investment in infrastructure
    It would help you to keep in mind the components of the CR and CP.
    Now that the above terminology is clear, let’s move and define the Deficits.

    II. Deficits

    1. Revenue Deficit(RD) refers to the excess of revenue expenditure over revenue receipts
    RD = Revenue Expenditure(RE) – Revenue Receipts(RR)
    Pretty simple and straightforward. What does it signify?
    It signifies if the day to day expenditure of the govt can be met by its day to day income.
    This is a very important deficit. It talks about component A. What happens if my monthly take home salary is 50K and my consumption is 60K? You can see that I’ll have to take loans to meet my monthly expenditures. But how will I repay the loans???
    Same is for the economy. A healthy economy shouldn’t be taking loans to meet its day to day expenses or it might end up falling in the debt trap.
    This deficit was so important that the FRBM Act. 2003 laid down rules to bring this deficit to absolute 0 by 2008-09.
    1. Fiscal Deficit(FD) is the difference between the total expenditure and [revenue receipts plus non-debt capital receipts]
     FD = Total Expenditure(TE) – (RR + CRa+CRb+CRc)
    Sounds complicated! Well not exactly. Lets go back to our example.
    Total Expenditure ( TE ) for that month is-
    10k (monthly consumption i.e. RE)+100k(purchase of a house i.e. CE) = 110k.
    Total Receipt (TR ) is-
    50k (salary i.e. RR) + 50k ( share sale i.e. non debt capital receipt) + 10k ( loan i.e. Debt creating Capital receipt).
    Put everything in formula-
    FD= TE – ( RR + Non debt CR )
    FD= 110k- ( 50k + 50k )
    FD= 10k
    If you look carefully this figure represents the loan you took to buy your home!
    Similarly, at the Budget level, it indicates the amount the Govt has to borrow to meet its annual targets.
    1. Primary Deficit(PD) is measured by fiscal deficit less interest payments.
    Primary Deficit (PD) = FD – Payment of Interests from previous loans
    PD has special significance.
    1. It shows what the Fiscal Deficit would’ve been for this particular year if no interests were to be paid. It ignores the loans taken by the previous Govts. in previous financial years.
    2. It talks about the health of our economy. Lets understand how
    Lets consider few cases.
    1. PD = 0.
    It implies FD = Payment of Interests from previous loans.
    This implies that the present government has recognized the need to tighten its belt, is now balancing its budget and FD is due to mess created by previous governments who borrowed irresponsibly.
    2. PD = FD
    It implies that Payment of Interests from previous loans are 0. Meaning we are taking loans to meet other targets and not payment of past loans. This implies previous governments acted very responsibly and balanced their budgets.
    There is another kind of Deficit – Effective Revenue Deficit(ERD)
    This was introduced in 2012 – 2013. This deficit tries to take into account the asset creation that happens at the state level.
    ERD = RD – (grants for creation of capital assets)
    We included all loans given to the states as one single category, revenue expenditure, without classifying which ones are being used for asset creation i.e. Capital Expenditure and which ones to meet other expenses i.e. Revenue Expenditure.
    Those which are used for asset creation at the state level are subtracted from the revenue deficit to arrive at Effective Revenue Deficit.
    Sources-
    http://indiabudget.nic.in/ub2015-16/keybud/keybud2015.pdf

     

  • [Spiritual Tourism #3] PRASAD Cities- Kanchipuram, Mathura, Puri

    In the last blog of this new series on Spiritual Tourism we left off at Kamakhya. Lets continue the tour alphabetically and traverse way down South to Kanchipuram. Keep the following map handy

    source

    #7: Kanchipuram

    • Kanchipuram is situated on the banks of Vegavathy river
    • One of 4 dhams of Hinduism (other three being Puri, Dwarka and Badrinath) + Seven most ancient religious cities (like Dwarka too)
    • Ruled by the Pallavas, the Medieval Cholas, the Later Cholas, the Later Pandyas, the Vijayanagar Empire, the Carnatic kingdom, and the British.
      • The legendary Pallavas ruled from Kanchi
      • Dravidian style evolved when rulers such as Mahendravarman and Narsimhavarman-1 commissioned Rock-cut temples (UNESCO herigtage status) known as “Rathas” on banks of Mamallapuram (close to Kanchipuram) Eg- Dharmaraja Ratha
      • Finally culminated in structural temples (also UNESCO heritage status) at Kanchipuram / Mahabalipuram such as Kailasanatha and Vaikuntha Perumal temple
    • Being THE temple city, it is known as ‘city of thousand temples’
      • Home to Ekambareswarar temple (having one of the tallest temple towers aka Vimana in India),
    • Centre for advanced education for Jainism and Buddhism between the 1st and 5th centuries
    • Headquarters of the Kanchi Matha, founded by the Hindu saint Adi Shankaracharya <recently a debate shot up regarding having this Astik Philosopher represent India as its National Philosopher; which exact sub-school does he belong to?>
    • Also called Silk City (Mulberry Silk)
      • Thriving handloom industry
      • Main profession of the people is weaving silk sarees
    • From North to south order of Important TN cities: Chennai -> Kanchipuram -> Puducherry (UT) -> Thanjavur -> Madurai -> Dindigul (Jalikattu Belt)

    #8: Kedarnath

    source
    • One of the twelve ‘Jyotirlingas‘ of Kedar or Lord Shiva.
    • Situated 3500 metres above sea level in Kumaon-Garhwal Himalaya
    • River Mandakini <Tributary of which river?> originates from a Chorabari glacier near Kedarnath
    • Fellow member of famed Panch Kedar 
      1. Rudranath
      2. Madmaheshwar
      3. Kalpeshwar.
      4. Tunganath
      5. Kedarnath
    • Built in 8th century AD by (same) Adi Shankaracharya (enlisted the Char Dhams)
    • Kedarnath was the holy temple ravaged by floods in 2013

     

    #9: Mathura 

    • Situated on banks of Yamuna river and birth place of Lord Krishna
    • Ruled by Mauryas, Sungas, Kushanas, Lodhis, Mughals, Jats, Marathas, Britishers
    • Centre of three cultures: Indian, Indo-scythian and Hellenstic
    • Centre of Religions: Buddhists, Jains and Brahmanical faith alike (Around 36 annual fairs are held); Round the year festivities
    • Visited by the famous Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang (during reign of Harshavardhana) and also received a mention from Ptolemy, the great Egyptian writer
      • Tsang came through Tashkent and Swat valley <Alexander did too!>
      • His book “Si-yu-ki” or the records of western world

     

    Mathura School of Art: 

    source

    Materials– Clay figurines (Terracotta), Red sandstone

    • Landmark Experimentation in style of sculpting- as it replaced symbols by Anthropomorphic forms
    • Secular in character
    • Foreign elements blended with indigenous motifs

    Traditional folk arts:

    • Rasiya (the tradition of folk-songs that describe the love of the divine couple Radha and Krishna),
    • Charkula (a traditional folk dance of the Braj, where a woman balances a column of deepikas on her head)
    • Sanjhee (the colourful art of decorating the ground with flowers),

     

    #10: Puri

    source

    • Abode of Hindu diety “Lord Jagannath” (a coastal city, not along banks of any river)
    • Enshrined in a grand Kalingan Temple of the 12th century
    • One of the Five sacred “khetras” of odisha
    • One of the 4 Dhams of Hinduism
    • Following saints sanctified the place through their preachings and left their imprints in the monasteries and ashramas
      • Ramanuja (12th century AD), Madhavatirtha (13th century AD), Naraharitirtha, Sankaradeva, Nanak, Kabir, Chaitanya
    • Famed Car festival (Rath Yatra) takes place annually here:
      • Three chariots carry Lord Jagannath and his sister, Subhadra, and brother Balabhadra
    • Community Institutions of Puri – the Jaga Gharas and Akhadas are present in each Sahi (nuclear settlements), where martial art, physical exercises and gymnastics are practised
    Published with inputs from Amar

  • [Spiritual Tourism #2] PRASAD Cities- Amritsar, Gaya, Dwarka and Kamakhya

    In the last blog of this new series on Spiritual Tourism we left off at Amaravati. Lets continue the tour alphabetically and head straight to Amritsar. Keep the following map handy

    source

    #3: Amritsar

    source
    • Literally a “Pool of Nectar”
    • Centre of Sikhism and the site of the Sikhs’ principal place of worship.
    • Name from Amrit Sarovar, the holy tank that surrounds the fabulous Harimandir Sahib aka Golden Temple
    • City was founded by Guru Ram Das Ji, the 4th Sikh Guru, in the year 1577
      • Early name of the city was Chak Guru
    • Places of Interest: Wagah Border, Jallianwala Bagh
    • Historic Importance:
      • A city of historic walls and impressive gateways
      • Importance under the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh
      • City lies on the Grand Trunk Road, Asia’s one of the oldest built by King Sher Shah Suri in the year 1539.
    • Arts and Craft
      • Woollens, carpets and blankets
      • Cut-glass work, bangles and embroidered stuff <like Phulkari embroidery which has GI tag>
      • Also home to various Takias (A sufi convent) & Khankahs (A retreat designed specifically for gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood to meet, reside, study, and assemble and pray together as a group in the presence of a Sufi master)

    #4: Dwarka

    source
    • One of 4 sacred Hindu pilgrimage sites (Chaar-dham) as per Shankaracharya
    • One of 7 most ancient religious cities in the country
    • Known for being the centre of Dwarka Kingdom, the ancient kingdom of Lord Krishna
      • Underwater Study on the coastal water of Dwarka conducted by the ASI revealed the existence of a city dated to the 2nd millennium BC
    • Famous for Dwarkadheesh Temple (dedicated to Lord Krishna), which was built around 200 BC
    • Mention in Indian epic literature in Mahabharata and Skanda Purana

    #5: Gaya- a religious confluence

    source

    Gaya is situated on the Banks of Phalgu river <Phalgu river is a tributary of which famous river?>

    • Center of Buddhism:
      • Close proximity to famous Buddhist pilgrimage centre of Bodhgaya
      • Lord Buddha attained enlightenment in Bodhgaya
        • The UNESCO famed Mahabodhi temple is also at Bodhgaya <Ashoka laid the foundation stone>
      • Projected to the world by Bimbisara the Fifth of the Shishunaga dynasty
      • Note: Gaya also finds a mention in the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata; like Dwarka
    • Center of Hinduism:
      • Famous as a site of Hindu tourism for ‘pind-daan’
      • Large influx of visitors for the month long ‘Pitra Paksh‘ mela annually
    • Center for Islam
      • Largest mosque in Bihar, the Jama Masjid. is also located in Gaya
        • There are numerous Jama masjids in India- the most famous being in Delhi made by Shah Jahan in Red Sandstone

     

    #6: Kamakhya Temple

    source
    • Center of Tantric and shakti cults of Hinduism
    • Sitting atop Nilachal Hills, overlooking river Brahmaputra in Assam
    • Inscription of Allahabad pillar of Samudragupta mentions Kamakya Temple
    • Amongst the 51 Shakti Peethas related to the cult of Sati (name comes from the myth that there are 51 pieces of Sati’s body scattered across the Indian subcontinent, and Kamakhya is one of them), and Shakta temple
    • Kamakya devi is also known as The menstruating goddess.
    • Famous Ambabuchi Mela is celebrated as the annual mela of Kamakhya Temple
    Published with inputs from Amar