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  • Climate Change Performance Index, 2021

    The 17th edition of the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2021 was released recently.

    It’s a very rare feat that India has performed so better in any climate-related index. We can use this data to highlight India’s dedicated efforts for Paris Agreement.

    About CCPI

    • The CCPI is an independent monitoring tool for tracking countries’ climate protection performance. It has been published annually since 2005.
    • It is compiled by Germanwatch, the New Climate Institute, and the Climate Action Network.
    • It evaluates 57 countries and the European Union, which together generate 90%+ of global greenhouse gas emissions.

    Parameters of the index

    • The CCPI looks at four categories, with 14 indicators: Greenhouse Gas Emissions (40% of the overall score), Renewable Energy (20%), Energy Use (20%), and Climate Policy (20%).
    • The CCPI’s unique climate policy section evaluates countries’ progress in implementing policies working towards achieving the Paris Agreement goals.

    Highlights of the 2021 report

    • The first three ranks of the overall rankings were kept empty because no country had performed well enough in all index categories to achieve an overall very high rating.
    • The 2021 report places Sweden on top, while countries such as Morocco and the UK are also ranked high.
    • The bottom-ranked country, the United States, therefore, was placed at 61.

    Low performers

    • Iran and Russia are ranked the lowest in this category.
    • Overall, Australia, South Korea and Russia are among the lowest performing countries along with Kazakhstan and Saudi Arabia.
    • China is ranked 33 overall and has an overall rating of “low”.

    India’s performance

    • In the overall rankings, India is at number 10 with a score of 63.98.
    • It is a high performer except in the renewable energy category, in which it is ranked “medium”.
    • The report says that India is benefiting from its relatively low per-capita emissions.
    • In terms of greenhouse gas emissions, Sweden, Egypt, Chile and the UK are in the top 7. India is ranked 12.

     

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  • Froth formation in Yamuna

    The visuals of devotees taking a dip in the froth-filled waters of the Yamuna River sent chills down the spine of the residents of Delhi.

    What is Froth Formation?

    • This is a phenomenon that takes place on many lakes and streams.
    • Foam bubbles are produced when organic matter decomposes.
    • These foam-producing molecules have one end that repels water and another that attracts water and they work to reduce the surface tension on the surface of the water.
    • These foam bubbles are lighter than water, so they float on the surface as a thin film that gradually accumulates.

    What causes the froth?

    • The presence of phosphates and surfactants in untreated sewage from Delhi, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh is a major reason behind frothing.
    • While these two components comprise of 1 per cent, the remaining 99 percent is air and water.

    What are the sources of pollution that cause foam formation?

    • Untreated sewage may contain soap-detergent particles.
    • The other sources are industrial effluents, organic matter from decomposing vegetation, and the presence of filamentous bacteria.
    • The pollution from the sugar and paper industries in Uttar Pradesh also causes pollution in the Yamuna.

    What are its health hazards?

    • Short-term exposure can lead to skin irritation and allergies.
    • If ingested, these chemicals may cause gastrointestinal problems and diseases like typhoid.
    • Long-term exposure to heavy metals in industrial pollutants can cause neurological issues and hormonal imbalances.

     

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  • International law as a means to advance national security interests

    Context

    Military experts, international relations academics, and practitioners like retired diplomats dominate the debates on global security in India. International lawyers are largely absent in these debates despite security issues being placed within the framework of international law.

    Using international law to further security interests

    In recent times, several examples demonstrate India’s failure to use an international law-friendly vocabulary to articulate its security interests.

    • First, India struck the terror camps in Pakistan in February 2019, after the Pulwama attack India did not invoke the right to self-defence; rather, it relied on a contested doctrine of ‘non-military pre-emptive action’.
    • Second, after the Pulwama attack, India decided to suspend the most favoured nation (MFN) status of Pakistan.
    • Under international law contained in the General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade, countries can deviate from their MFN obligations on grounds of national security.
    • Instead of suspending the MFN obligation towards Pakistan along these lines, India used Section 8A(1) of the Customs Tariff Act, 1975, to increase customs duties on all Pakistani products to 200%.
    • The notification on this decision did not even mention ‘national security’.
    • Third, India wishes to deport the Rohingya refugees who, it argues, pose a security threat.
    • India’s argument to justify this deportation is that it is not a signatory to the Refugee Convention.
    • This is a weak argument since India is bound by the principle of non-refoulment.
    • National security is one of the exceptions to the non-refoulment principle in international refugee law.
    • If India wishes to deport the Rohingya, it should develop a case on these lines showing how they constitute a national security threat.
    • Fourth, to put pressure on the Taliban regime to serve India’s interest, India has rarely used international law.
    •  India could have made a case for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) using its implied powers under international law to temporarily suspend Afghanistan from SAARC’s membership.

    Reasons for international law remaining at the margins

    • First, there is marginal involvement of international lawyers in foreign policymaking.
    • The Legal and Treaties Division of the Ministry of External Affairs, which advises the government on international law matters, is both understaffed and largely ignored on policy matters.
    • Second, apart from the External Affairs Ministry, there are several other Ministries like Commerce and Finance that also deal with different facets of international law.
    • They have negligible expertise in international law.
    • Third, there has been systemic neglect of the study of international law.
    • Fourth, many of the outstanding international law scholars that India has produced prefer to converse with domain experts only.

    Way forward

    • If India wishes to emerge as a global power, it has to make use of ‘lawfare’ i.e., use law as a weapon of national security.
    • To mainstream international law in foreign policymaking, India should invest massively in building its capacity on international law.

    Conclusion

    Notwithstanding the central role that international law plays in security matters, India has failed to fully appreciate the usage of international law to advance its national security interests.

     

    Back2Basics: Non-refoulement principle

    • The principle of non-refoulement constitutes the cornerstone of international refugee protection.
    • It is enshrined in Article 33 of the 1951 Convention, which is also binding on States Party to the 1967 Protocol.
    • Article 33(1) of the 1951 Convention provides:

    “No Contracting State shall expel or return (“refouler”) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his [or her] life or freedom would be threatened on account of his [or her] race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.”

  • What is Freedom of Air?

    A flight from Srinagar to Sharjah had to avoid flying over Pakistan after the country denied permission to use its airspace for the said flight. With this refusal, Pakistan has violated the first freedom of air.

    Freedom of Air

    • Following the Chicago Convention in 1944, the signatories decided to set rules that would act as fundamental building blocks to international commercial aviation.
    • As a part of these rules, initially, six ‘freedoms of air’ were decided.
    • These freedoms or rights still operate within the ambit of multilateral and bilateral treaties.
    • It allows to grant airlines of a particular country the privilege to use and/or land in another country’s airspace.

    ‘Freedoms’ accorded

    1. Flying over a foreign country without landing
    2. Refuel or carry out maintenance in a foreign country without embarking or disembarking passengers or cargo
    3. Fly from the home country and land in a foreign country
    4. Fly from a foreign country and land in the home country
    5. Fly from the home country to a foreign country, stopping in another foreign country on the way
    6. Fly from a foreign country to another foreign country, stopping in the home country on the way
    7. Fly from a foreign country to another foreign country, without stopping in the home country
    8. Fly from the home country to a foreign country, then on to another destination within the same foreign country
    9. Fly internally within a foreign country

    Why did Pakistan deny use of its airspace?

    • There has been no official explanation given by Pakistan authorities.
    • Indian has approached Pakistan to raise the issue of the refusal to use its airspace for the said flight.
    • Notably, other Indian airlines flying to west Asia from airports such as Delhi, Lucknow, etc have not been barred from using Pakistan airspace.
    • This also raises the concern of Pakistan violating the first freedom of air.

     

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  • UNESCO picks Srinagar as ‘Creative City’

    The UNESCO has picked up Srinagar among 49 cities as part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) under the Crafts and Folk Arts category.

    What is UCCN?

    • UCCN created in 2004, is a network of cities that are thriving, active centers of cultural activities in their respective countries.
    • These cities can be from all continents with different income levels or with different levels of populations.
    • UCCN believes that these cities are working towards a common mission by placing creativity at the core of their urban development plans to make the region resilient, safe, inclusive and sustainable.
    • Ministry of Culture is the nodal Ministry of the Government of India for all matters in UNESCO relating to culture.

    Objective of UCCN

    • Placing creativity and the creative economy at the core of their urban development plans to make cities safe, resilient, inclusive and sustainable, in line with the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

    The 7 categories for recognition under UCCN are as follows:

    • Crafts and Folk Arts
    • Design
    • Film
    • Gastronomy (food)
    • Music
    • Media Arts
    • Literature

    Previously, 3 Indian cities were recognized as members of UCCN namely-

    • Jaipur-Crafts and Folk Arts (2015)
    • Varanasi-Creative city of Music (2015)
    • Chennai-Creative city of Music (2017)
    • Mumbai-Film (2019)
    • Hyderabad- Gastronomy (2019)

     

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  • A brief history of India’s Poverty Levels

    Poverty in India had increased between 2012 and 2020.

    What is Poverty?

    • Fundamentally, the concept of poverty is associated with socially perceived deprivation with respect to basic human needs (Tendulkar, 2009).
    • This is a crucial definition to consider since the Tendulkar committee’s estimation method is the last officially recognized method for arriving at poverty numbers in India.

    A relative term

    • If you think about it for a moment, poverty is a “relative” concept.
    • Poverty is essentially about how you are “relative” to those in your surroundings.
    • For example, with Rs 1,000 in your pocket, you may be “rich” if those around you have no more than Rs 100 with them.
    • But, in another setting, say around those who have no less than Rs 10,000 with them, you will come across as “poor”.
    • As such, as long as there are variations in the income and/or wealth levels in a society, there will be “poverty”.

    What is abject poverty?

    • Apart from the relative nature of poverty, there is such a thing as abject poverty.
    • It typically refers to a state where a person is unable to meet its most basic needs such as eating the minimum amount of food to stay alive.

    What is a Poverty Line?

    • From the point of view of policymaking, poverty levels typically refer to some level of income or expenditure below which one can reasonably argue that someone is poorer than the rest of the society.
    • The whole point of the bulk of policymaking is to improve the living standards of the poorest in the country.
    • But to design policies, one must first know what the target group is, how much does it earn (or spend, since robust data on income is not easily available).
    • This is done by choosing a “poverty line” — or a level of income or consumption expenditure that divides the population between the poor and non-poor.

    Why define a Poverty Line?

    The purpose behind choosing a poverty line is two-fold.

    (A) To accurately design policies for the poor

    • Doing so allows you to target your policies towards the two poorest people in the country.
    • Often such policies are redistributive in nature — such as giving subsidised food grains or providing some kind of social security like MGNREGA.
    • In an ideal world a government would have the resources to help everyone in the economy but in reality, even the government’s works within some financial or budgetary constraints.

    (B) To assess the success or failure of government policies over time

    • Over time the overall GDP doubles but the income of the general public falls.
    • Hence the government would know that its policies are not bearing fruit.

    Poverty Estimation in India

    • Planning Commission Expert Group (1962): It formulated the separate poverty lines for rural and urban areas at ₹20 and ₹25 per capita per year respectively.
    • VM Dandekar and N Rath (1971): They made the first systematic assessment, based on National Sample Survey (NSS) data. They suggested providing 2250 calories per day in both rural and urban areas.
    • YK Alagh Committee (1979): It constructed a poverty line for rural and urban areas on the basis of nutritional requirements and related consumption expenditure.
    • Lakdawala Committee (1993): It suggested that consumption expenditure should be calculated based on calorie consumption as earlier. State specific poverty lines should be constructed. It asked for discontinuation of scaling of poverty estimates based on National Accounts Statistics.
    • Tendulkar Committee (2009): The current official measures of poverty are based on the Tendulkar poverty line, fixed at daily expenditure of ₹27.2 in rural areas and ₹33.3 in urban areas is criticised by many for being too low.

    What has happened in India’s fight against poverty?

    • There are two ways to assess India’s performance.
    1. One is to look at the headcount ratio of poverty which is the percentage of India’s population that was designated to be below the poverty line
    2. The other variable to look at is the absolute number of poor people in the country
    • If one looks at the headcount ratio then India made rapid strides since 1973.
    • Even though India is home to possibly the largest number of poor people in the world, there has been no official update on India’s poverty levels since.

    Who oversees the Poverty Level?

    • Poverty levels are updated by using the Consumer Expenditure Survey, which is conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) once every five years.
    • The last such survey was conducted in 2017-18.
    • That survey reportedly showed that for the first time in four decades consumer expenditure in India had fallen.

    What are the latest findings?

    • Poverty levels, as well as the absolute number of poor, had risen between 2011-12 and 2017-18.
    • The government claimed that the survey suffered from “data quality” issues.
    • The next round of the Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES) was supposed to be conducted in 2021.

    Causes of rise in Poverty

    • GDP growth decline: It is a fact that India’s GDP growth rate had registered a secular deceleration between the start of 2017 and 2020.
    • Jobless growth: The second and related factor is the unprecedented rise in joblessness.
    • Wages decline: Millions were pulled out of poverty between 2004 and 2011 due to sharp rise in non-farm employment and associated wages. But for many of those workers, real wages have either fallen or stagnated.
    • Pandemic impact: Covid induced lockdown sent millions of workers back to villages, seeking MGNREGA work at minimum wages.

     

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  • Turmeric Cultivation in India

    Turmeric (Curcuma longa), native to India, has been studied extensively for its effects against viral diseases in recent decades, but the COVID-19 pandemic has renewed interest.

    About Turmeric

    • Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is used as a condiment, dye, drug and cosmetic in addition to its use in religious ceremonies.
    • India is a leading producer and exporter of turmeric in the world.
    • The top five turmeric-producing states of India in 2020-21 are Telangana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

    Climate and Soil

    • Turmeric can be grown in diverse tropical conditions from sea level to 1500 m above sea level.
    • It requires a temperature range of 20-35 C with an annual rainfall of 1500 mm or more, under rainfed or irrigated conditions.
    • Though it can be grown on different types of soils, it thrives best in well-drained sandy or clay loam soils with a pH range of 4.5-7.5 with good organic status.

    Varieties

    • A number of cultivars are available in the country and are known mostly by the name of locality where they are cultivated.
    • Some of the popular cultivars are Duggirala, Tekkurpet, Sugandham, Amalapuram, Erode local, Salem, Alleppey, Moovattupuzha and Lakdong.

    Preparation of land

    • The land is prepared with the receipt of early monsoon showers.
    • The soil is brought to a fine tilth by giving about four deep ploughings.
    • Planting is also done by forming ridges and furrows.

    Plantation

    • Whole or split mother and finger rhizomes are used for planting and well-developed healthy and disease-free rhizomes are to be selected.

    Why turmeric?

    • Post pandemic, turmeric is one of the fastest-growing dietary supplements.
    • The global curcumin market, valued at $58.4 million in 2019, is expected to witness a growth of 12.7 percent by 2027.
    • As the world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter of turmeric, India stands to gain from this.

    Global standing

    • India produces 78 per cent of the world’s turmeric.
    • The country’s turmeric production saw a near consistent growth since Independence till 2010-11 after which it started fluctuating.
    • The pandemic has given a boost to the crop, with the production witnessing a rise of 23 per cent.
    • Though the production and export of turmeric has risen, farmers have not benefitted from its pricing.

    Try this PYQ from CSP 2020:

    With reference to the current trends in the cultivation of sugarcane in India, consider the following statements:

    1. A substantial saving in seed material is made when ‘bud chip settlings are raised in a nursery and transplanted in the main field.
    2. When direct planting of setts is done, the germination percentage is better with single-budded setts as compared to setts with many buds.
    3. If bad weather conditions prevail when setts are directly planted, single-budded setts have better survival as compared to large setts.
    4. Sugarcane can be cultivated using settlings prepared from tissue culture.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 4 only

    (d) 2,3 and 4 only

     

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  • Sixth Mass Extinction?

    A paper published recently has come up with a new reason behind the first mass extinction, also known as the Late Ordovician mass extinction.

    Species Extinction

    • Extinction is a part of life, and animals and plants disappear all the time. About 98% of all the organisms that have ever existed on our planet are now extinct.
    • When a species goes extinct, its role in the ecosystem is usually filled by new species, or other existing ones.

    What is Mass Extinction?

    • Earth’s ‘normal’ extinction rate is often thought to be somewhere between 0.1 and 1 species per 10,000 species per 100 years.
    • This is known as the background rate of extinction.
    • A mass extinction event is when species vanish much faster than they are replaced.
    • This is usually defined as about 75% of the world’s species being lost in a ‘short’ amount of geological time – less than 2.8 million years.

    How many mass extinctions have there been?

    Five great mass extinctions have changed the face of life on Earth. We know what caused some of them, but others remain a mystery:

    [I] Ordovician-Silurian ME

    • It occurred 443 million years ago and wiped out approximately 85% of all species.
    • Scientists think it was caused by temperatures plummeting and huge glaciers forming, which caused sea levels to drop dramatically.
    • This was followed by a period of rapid warming. Many small marine creatures died out.

    [II] Devonian ME

    • It took place 374 million years ago and killed about three-quarters of the world’s species, most of which were marine invertebrates that lived at the bottom of the sea.
    • This was a period of many environmental changes, including global warming and cooling, a rise and fall of sea levels and a reduction in oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
    • We don’t know exactly what triggered the extinction event.

    [III] Permian ME

    • It happened 250 million years ago, was the largest and most devastating event of the five.
    • Also known as the Great Dying, it eradicated more than 95% of all species, including most of the vertebrates which had begun to evolve by this time.
    • Some scientists think Earth was hit by a large asteroid which filled the air with dust particles that blocked out the Sun and caused acid rain.
    • Others think there was a large volcanic explosion that increased carbon dioxide and made the oceans toxic.

    [IV] Triassic ME

    • It took place 200 million years ago, eliminating about 80% of Earth’s species, including many types of dinosaurs.
    • This was probably caused by colossal geological activity that increased carbon dioxide levels and global temperatures, as well as ocean acidification.

    [V] Cretaceous ME

    • It occurred 65 million years ago, killing 78% of all species, including the remaining non-avian dinosaurs.
    • This was most likely caused by an asteroid hitting the Earth in what is now Mexico, potentially compounded by ongoing flood volcanism in what is now India.

    What caused first ME?

    • The cooling climate likely changed the ocean circulation pattern.
    • This caused a disruption in the flow of oxygen-rich water from the shallow seas to deeper oceans, leading to a mass extinction of marine creatures.
    • Ordovician Sea has familiar groups like clams and snails and sponges.
    • Many other groups are now very reduced in diversity or entirely extinct like trilobites, brachiopods, and crinoids.

    The sixth mass extinction

    • We are currently experiencing a sixth mass extinction as the result of human-induced climate change.
    • There have been several theories behind each mass extinction and with advances in new technologies, researchers have been uncovering more intricate details about these events.

    Try this PYQ from CSP 2018

    The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:

     

    (a) Widespread monoculture Practices agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.

    (b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.

    (c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other Parts of the world may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.

    (d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss, natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.

     

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  • Principles of Responsible Banking (PRBs)

    Global banks are pledging to report annually on the carbon emissions linked to the projects they lend to in an extension to the Principles for Responsible Banking (PRBs).

    What are PRBs?

    • The PRBs are a unique framework for ensuring that signatory banks’ strategy and practice align with the vision society has set out for its future in the SDGs and the Paris Climate Agreement.
    • It was created in 2019 through a partnership between founding banks and the United Nations.
    • The framework consists of 6 Principles designed to bring purpose, vision and ambition to sustainable finance.
    • Signatory banks commit to embedding these 6 principles across all business areas, at the strategic, portfolio and transactional levels:

    Note: India’s YES BANK Limited is the only Indian signatory to this framework.

    Significance of the PRBs

    • Banks can contribute to solving the climate crisis from two angles: their lending and their investments.
    • Many bank policies concentrate their investments on securities that were focused on sustainability.

    Issues with PRB

    • Being a signatory to the PRBs is a limited commitment.
    • Signatories have four years to comply with the principles.
    • Even then, everything is voluntary and non-binding, so signatories are not penalized or even named and shamed for failing to live up to the principles.

    Way forward

    • When signatories to the PRBs are lending money, they are supposed to carry out environmental impact assessments and to measure the greenhouse gas emissions of projects.
    • This is not a minor issue considering that such work is beyond the traditional competencies of banks and will significantly affect their operational costs.
    • Signatories are also supposed to ensure that loans go to projects that are carbon neutral.

     

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  • Life, work and legend of Adi Shankaracharya

    PM has unveiled a 12-foot statue of Adi Shankaracharya at Kedarnath, where the acharya is believed to have attained samadhi at the age of 32 in the ninth century.

    Adi Shankaracharya (788-820 AD)

    • Adi Shankaracharya was an Indian philosopher and theologian whose works had a strong impact on the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.
    • He founded mathas, which are believed to have helped in the historical development, revival and propagation of his philosophy.
    • The story recounted today has been reconstructed from multiple Shankaravijayas (Conquests of Shankara) written over the centuries.

    Birth and death

    • He is said to have been born in Kaladi village on the bank of the Periyar, the largest river in Kerala.
    • He is believed to have attained samadhi at Kedarnath; however, Kanchi and Thrissur are also talked about as places where Adi Shankara spent his last days.

    His literary works

    • Adi Shankara is generally identified as the author of 116 works.
    • Among them the celebrated commentaries (bhashyas) on 10 Upanishads, the Brahmasutra and the Gita, and poetic works including Vivekachudamani, Maneesha Panchakam, and Saundaryalahiri.
    • He composed the Kanakadhara Stotram, following which there was a rain of golden amlas, which brought prosperity to the household.
    • It has also been claimed that Adi Shankara composed texts like Shankarasmrithi, which seeks to establish the social supremacy of Nambuthiri Brahmins.
    • His great standing is derived from his commentaries of the prasthanatrayi (Upanishads, Brahmasutra and Gita), where he explains his understanding of Advaita Vedanta.

    His philosophy: Advaita Vedanta

    • Advaita Vedanta articulates a philosophical position of radical nondualism, a revisionary worldview which it derives from the ancient Upanishadic texts.
    • According to this, the Upanishads reveal a fundamental principle of nonduality termed ‘brahman’, which is the reality of all things.
    • Advaitins understand brahman as transcending individuality and empirical plurality.
    • They seek to establish that the essential core of one’s self (atman) is brahman. It is pure non-intentional consciousness.
    • It is one without a second, nondual, infinite existence, and numerically identical with brahman.
    • This effort entails tying a metaphysics of brahman to a philosophy of consciousness.

    Do you know?

    There are six major schools of Vedic philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta, and five major heterodox (sramanic) schools—Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka.

    Shankara’s contested legacy

    • Custodians of the caste system cite from Shankara’s commentaries to justify the unequal and unjust social order.
    • It is argued that the Advaita Vedanta borrowed the categories of Buddhist thinkers and called him the Prachhanna Buddha (Buddha in disguise).
    • Sri Narayana Guru offered a radical reading of Advaita Vedanta to dismantle the theory and praxis of caste.

    His political appropriation

    • His works transcends the political boundaries of his time.
    • The mathas are believed to have established in Sringeri, Dwaraka, Puri, and Joshimath for the spread of Advaita Vedanta.
    • They are seen as custodians of Hinduism, and Shankara’s digvijaya (conquest) often interpreted as a near nationalistic project where faith, philosophy and geography are yoked together to imagine a Hindu India.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q. Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?

    (a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

    (b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika

    (c) Lokayata and Kapalika

    (d) Sankhya and Yoga

     

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