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Civilsdaily helped 100+ aspirants get ranks in UPSC 2020. We helped 30 students secure ranks in the Top 100. After speaking with them personally on our UNHERD platform, we understood that there was one thing that was common between all the rankers!

All the rankers committed themselves and NEVER postponed their preparation. They did not waste a single day but started preparing immediately. We also asked them WHY did they start immediately and did not wait? 

This is what the rankers told us

You will fall into a vicious cycle – Our toppers said that if aspirants do not start preparing immediately, they often fall into a vicious cycle of doubt and confusion. They wait for the right moment to start preparing but keep delaying it for numerous reasons like work, college, not-ready, etc. The more time they waste, the more confused they get, and the syllabus starts piling up. The toppers told us that the best thing they did was to start immediately and it helped them succeed!

Lack of self-analysis can cost you 3-4 years – The toppers revealed that self-analysis is one of the most important things for an aspirant. You need to know the syllabus, the previous year questions for every topic, your strengths, your weaknesses, your learning speed, the best time to study, how to plan the study, etc. Most aspirants who fail the exam do not do self-analysis and just keep reading. This does not help as it wastes a lot of their time. In fact, if you are not sure about your strengths and weaknesses, it could easily cost you 3-4 years in preparation. The toppers also told us that they asked mentors for assessments when they felt confused. Self-analysis helped them focus on their weaknesses and improve them. And finally, they were able to crack the exam.

UPSC is the biggest killer of self-belief – Our toppers told us that the UPSC exam is so tough and vast that it often kills an aspirant’s self-confidence. It becomes extremely difficult for them to remain consistent and motivated for the entire year. The rankers revealed that when they faced inconsistency and lacked self-confidence, they often spoke with their mentors who guided them. They found help in the mentors who understood their concerns and kept them motivated, especially when they felt down and depressed. This helped the rankers become consistent and prepare with the same energy every day!

Self-study with no guidance doesn’t help – The rankers of 2020 told us that preparing for UPSC is like walking on a desert. You will be lost without a guide. They said that even when they were self-studying, they kept asking for guidance from mentors. What to study, what not to study, how to improve their answers, which areas to focus on, etc. The toppers stayed constantly in touch with mentors who helped them at every step. They did the hard work themselves but it would have been a waste if the hard work was not in the right direction.

Always overachieve your daily target by 25% – The toppers said that they had a study plan with targets for every day! But that was not all. They always tried to overachieve the targets by at least 25%. Every time they overachieved, it gave them the confidence to do the same every day. And by the end of their preparation, they had a clear advantage over other aspirants because they studied 25% more than everyone, every single day!

The toppers of 2020 told us that their handwork, right guidance, and smart planning at an early stage helped them succeed. They said that they did not want to postpone their preparation even by a single day as it would cost them ranks. And they were right! They started preparing immediately and are now rank-holders in UPSC!

While UPSC 2023 may seem like a year away from now, looking at the syllabus one can say it’s just about the right time away. As Prelims 2022 approaches in June, more and more aspirants will realising how close they are to 2023 and begin preparing immediately. But it may just be too late by then!

If you are reading this today, you are in luck. You have the opportunity to realise the urgency immediately. March has just begun and you can have an advantage of at least siix months over other aspirants if you start preparing today. And even with a year in your hand, it would take a high level of extremely focused study to crack the exam in June 2023. 

The fact is this: You CANNOT waste a single day in experimenting, hunting for resources, trying to collect reading material, etc. Every day from today is more valuable than anything you can imagine, and this is the time to focus with every bit of concentration you have.

Given the time constraint and the urgency of the situation, you need to be practical. Speak with our mentors and get your preparation organised. Our mentors can help you streamline your preparation within 24 hours and will help you save precious time.Right now, nothing is more valuable than your time and if you wish to use it effectively, all it would take is a call with our mentors.

The urgency is real, you can calculate yourself. And every moment you waste is an opportunity wasted. All you need to do is fill this form and our senior mentors will get in touch with you, with a solution designed especially for you! Speak with us, now as it’s a free 1-on-1 mentorship session with 40 minutes dedicated only for you.

Get Motivated to Maintain Overall Consistency for UPSC

It’s understandable we are humans and not programmable robots who can maintain the same level of interest everyday. However, maintaining an overall consistency throughout our preparation is neccessary to clear this competitive and vast exam. 

Our philosophy behind MENTORSHIP is to get you out of this Snooze cycle. This ensures that you are the BEST VERSION of yourself in this journey. If you are under the impression that mentorship is weekly calls you attend, then you are mistaken, my friend. Trust us, your mentor will be your ‘FRIEND, PHILOSOPHER AND GUIDE’.

TO EACH THEIR OWN – Every aspirant is different. Their strengths and weaknesses are different. Their time availability is also different. Identifying this is important so you don’t end up making unrealistic targets and lose momentum. Your mentor will make sure you start slow but remain consistent to build your confidence. Making your schedule structured based on our experience of working with 2500+ students is our first priority. 

TRACK YOUR PROGRESS – When you see yourself grow, it becomes easier to motivate yourself to push boundaries. Tracking your progress can happen in many ways like mentorship calls or chat sessions or by regular tests. The idea is to ensure that you don’t go off track in your preparation, and even if you do, we have your back.

EVOLUTION – A constant guidance is important to bring consistency to your UPSC preparation. Guidance is not about clearing your doubts or asking you to study when you don’t. It is also about the evolution of your preparation. This is where you and your mentor work as a team. A constant effort to PLAN AND BUILD UP YOUR ABILITY to learn in a faster and more efficient way.

TALK IT OUT – The biggest hurdle in achieving your highest level of consistency is the emotional part. Every now and then, you. surround yourself with negative thoughts, you feel scared and depressed. Instead of resolving these emotional issues, you avoid them as it seems like a waste of your precious time. You have to understand that ignoring emotional troubles does not solve them. What your doing is building an emotional time bomb that may burst a week before your mains or prelims! This is where your MENTOR AS A FRIEND comes in. All our mentors have been through this journey. We understand your fears and anxieties. So, TALK IT OUT.

Don’t let inconsistency keep you away from your dreams.

Fill up the SAMANVAYA form given below. Let us know your problems and we will find a solution to it, just like our students say ” TOGETHER WE CAN AND WE WILL”.

How has Civilsdaily Mentorship, helped Aspirants become Toppers?

The most difficult challenge faced by EVERY candidate is inconsistency. Be it inconsistency in studies, answer-writing practice, covering the syllabus, or revision, every candidate finds it difficult to cope with. But how do successful candidates manage to FIGHT Inconsistency so consistently?

In UPSC 2020, Civilsdaily helped 80+ students secure ranks in their exams. In the top 100, every 3rd ranker was a Civilsdaily student.

 A very recent success story would be Vishwa Shah, student of Civilsdaily Mentor, Sukanya Ma’am. Vishwa has cleared the GPSC exam to become the Deputy Superintendent of Police in Gujarat. He has penned a thank-you note yesterday. Heartiest Congratulations to Vishwa!

One of our other Civilsdaily Student, Shubham Nagargoje cleared the exams in 2020 to become an IPS Officer. Shubham was gracious enough to let us know how he felt about Civilsdaily Samanvaya Guidance under Parth sir.

To know how all of them cleared the exam with our mentorship, visit the Unherd Podcast.

Now that results are announced for UPSC 2021 Prelims, out of 15 out of 25 students of Santhosh Gupta sir have been recommended to Mains. One such student, Rahul expresses his gratitude and extends his appreciation.

Most of our Mentors like Sudhanshu sir, Sajal sir, Santhosh sir, Pravin sir, Parth Verma sir and Sukanya Ma’am were UPSC aspirants themselves and have attended UPSC Mains more than five times and UPSC Interview more than twice. Hence their mentorship is always a blend of the best test series, comprehensive notes and current affairs knowledge.

All of them dedicate their time weekly to give 1-on-1 mentorship to every student where they discuss last week’s performance and next week’s approach.

Be it Telegram, Whatsapp or Habitiat channels, they are always available and clear student’s doubts in a turnaround time of 24 Hours.

Why Civilsdaily Mentors are the GPS for Your UPSC-CSE Preparation

Remember there is always light at the end of the tunnel and if you want to get out of the tunnel you have to follow the direction of the light! Our mentors’ give you direction which is divided into daily modules. All you have to do is study and complete them on time.

As every year passes by, we don’t get confident by the previous years’ performance and become laidback. Instead, we become more hungry to convert all our students into toppers.REGISTER HERE TO SCHEDULE YOUR FIRST FREE SAMANVAYA COUNSELLING SESSION IN NEXT 24 HOURS

How are Current Civilsdaily Students Gearing up for UPSC-CSE 2022?

Initially, our Civilsdaily student Smriti wasn’t confident about Prelims when she began her preparation. Though she had joined Civilsdaily in 2020, she started studying for UPSC-CSE back in 2019. At that time, Smriti had enrolled in multiple institutes. Though, most of these institutes had promised a personal mentor, she was unable to get in touch with them on a daily basis. Also those mentors never scheduled test-series on a weekly basis. Hence, despite preparing for a year, Smriti had scored only 35 marks out of 200 in her first test series by Civilsdaily.

She then started writing 20-25 test series over the course of UAP 2021 and in her last test, her scores have drastically improved. She now scores in the range of 130-135 marks in prelims’ and 110+ in mains’ papers.

In Smriti’s own words she describes her Samanvaya Mentorship Experience to be —

“Our parents provide us financial and emotional support, friends provide us moral support and the right mentor gives you logistic and logical support for UPSC. There are days when I felt I won’t be able to compete against lakhs of aspirants. That’s when my mentor, Ravi sir reminded me of my improvement and encouraged me that I can crack it with the same consistency. We need someone, who tells us we are performing well especially when we cannot see that ourselves. The mentorship at Civilsdaily helped me become mentally stronger as a person. In other institutes, mentors are allotted only for doubt resolution. But at Civilsdaily, I am getting end-to-end mentorship via value added notes, classes, test series and detailed evaluation.”

Similarly our another Civilsdaily student, Ashish sums up his Samanvaya experience with Civilsdaily mentor, Pravin Sir, “Because of Pravin sir’s support, I am able to understand a topic in lesser time.”

This is how Pravin sir evaluates Ashish’s Mains Test Series every week. After every test series evaluation, Pravin sir schedules a 1 hour call to discuss how Ashish can improve his marks and the sources he can refer for key topics.

It’s Your Turn Get the Free 40 Min Counselling Session By a CD Mentor

Civilsdaily mentors are so dedicated, consistent and focused for your UPSC goal, that you will eventually become focused into turning your dreams to reality.

At the core of Civilsdaily UPSC mentorship, lies the fact that each one of you will have a unique journey while preparing for the exam. Some will get through on the first attempt without much effort while others will take both more time and more effort.

We want to understand you better to help you optimize your journey so you can focus on the right things and not waste time on the wrong ones. We are asking you to tap into the valuable experiences of mentors who underwent the same grind and realize the pitfalls and understand the shortcuts to make it.

In the first counselling session, we will understand your weaknesses. We then help you to stick to one plan or strategy throughout your preparation. We will then follow up with you on a daily basis to check if you are right on track. TALK TO OUR MENTORS & CLARIFY YOUR DOUBTS NOW

UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)

Context

• Project Tiger started in 1973, one of the largest species conservation initiatives in the world, is in its 49^th year.
• It has helped in restoring the population and strengthening conservation efforts for tigers.
• However there are many challenges too. Managing the tiger population, giving them safe habitat, avoiding human-tiger conflicts are some of the issues that the project has faced.
• Having said that, less than three thousand populations still puts these majestic cats in endangered species.

What more needs to be done to create a safe and secure environment for tigers? What are the challenges? We will try to find out in this article.

What is Project Tiger?

• Launched from Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand, the project is an ongoing scheme of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• The centrally sponsored scheme is applicable in nine reserves of different States, namely Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. 

Project Tiger has been converted into a statutory authority, National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) by providing enabling provisions in the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 through an amendment, via Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006.  The NTCA addresses ecological and administrative concerns for conserving tigers. It provides a statutory basis for the protection of tiger reserves and provides strengthened institutional mechanisms for the protection of ecologically sensitive areas and endangered species.

Purpose of Project Tiger

The tiger is a unique animal that plays a pivotal role in the health and diversity of an ecosystem.

• Predation balance: It is a top predator which is at the apex of the food chain.
• Regulation of herbivores: It keeps the population of wild ungulates in check, thereby maintaining the balance between prey herbivores and the vegetation upon which they feed.
• Ecosystem balance: Therefore, the presence of tigers in the forest is an indicator of the well being of the ecosystem.
• Tourism: Apart from the ecological services provided by the animal, the tiger also offers direct use such as attracting tourists, which provide incomes for local communities.

Execution of the Project

Project Tiger was administered by the NTCA. The overall administration of the project is monitored by a steering committee, which is headed by a director. A field director is appointed for each reserve, who is assisted by a group of field and technical personnel.

1. Shivalik-Terai Conservation Unit
2. North-East Conservation Unit
3. Sunderbans Conservation Unit
4. Western Ghats Conservation Unit
5. Eastern Ghats Conservation Unit
6. Central India Conservation Unit
7. Sariska Conservation Unit
8. Kaziranga Conservation Unit

The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on the ‘core-buffer’ strategy:

• Core Area: are free of all human activities. It has the legal status of a national park or wildlife sanctuary. It is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations like a collection of minor forest produce, grazing, and other human disturbances are not allowed within.
• Buffer Areas: are subjected to ‘conservation-oriented land use’. They comprise forest and non-forest land. It is a multi-purpose use area with twin objectives of providing habitat supplement to spillover population of wild animals from the core conservation unit and providing site-specific co-developmental inputs to surrounding villages for relieving their impact on the core area.

Issues with the Project

• Implementation bottlenecks: The efforts were hampered by poaching, as well as debacles and irregularities in Sariska and Namdapha, both of which were reported extensively in the Indian media.
• Forest Dwellers Rights: The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 recognizes the rights of some forest dwelling communities in forest areas. This has led to controversy over implications of such recognition for tiger conservation.
• Man-Animal Conflict: Some have argued that this is problematic as it will increase conflict and opportunities for poaching; some also assert that “tigers and humans cannot co-exist”.
• Abuse of Authority: Others argue that this is a limited perspective that overlooks the reality of human-tiger coexistence and the abuse of power by authorities, evicting local people and making them pariahs in their own traditional lands.

Other efforts to save Tigers

India is home to 70 percent of the global tiger population. Therefore, the country has an important role to play in tiger conservation.

[1] Project Tiger

(discussed above)

[2] CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

• Besides protecting tiger territory, other measures being taken to save the tiger include: curbing wildlife trade through international agreements.
• CITES is an international agreement between governments aimed at ensuring that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants, including tigers, does not threaten their survival. India ratified this treaty in 1976.

[3] Global Tiger Forum and Tiger Range Countries

• Established in 1994, the Global Tiger Forum is the only inter-governmental body for tiger conservation.
• Its membership includes seven tiger range countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Cambodia, Myanmar, Nepal and Vietnam.

[4] CA|TS

• 14 tiger reserves have been accredited under CA|TS (Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards) categories.
• The CA|TS is a set of criteria that examines the management of tiger sites to gauge the success rates of tiger conservation.

[5] St. Petersburg Declaration   

• This resolution was adopted In November 2010, by the leaders of 13 tiger range countries (TRCs) assembled at an International Tiger Forum in St. Petersburg, Russia
• It aimed at promoting a global system to protect the natural habitat of tigers and raise awareness among people on white tiger conservation.

[6] Various NGOs

• International NGO members consist of World Wildlife Fund, International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), and TRAFFIC.
• Several national NGOs from India and Nepal are also members.

Success of the Project Tiger

The four-year tiger census report, Status of Tigers in India, 2018 shows numbers of the big cat have increased across all landscapes.

The total count has risen to 2,967 from 2,226 in 2014 — an increase of 741 individuals (aged more than one year), or 33%, in four years.

• At present, India has around 75% of tiger population and its source areas amongst the 13 tiger range countries in the world.
• 2.24% of country’s geographical area is spread out in 51 tiger reserves in 18 States.

Various threats to Tigers

• Despite measures being initiated to protect wild tigers, habitat loss and poaching continue to pose a threat to the animal’s survival.
• Tiger parts are used in traditional Chinese medicines, tiger skin is used for decorative and medicinal purposes and tiger bones are again used for medicinal purposes for curing body pain, et al.
• Between 2000 and 2014, TRAFFIC’s research found that parts of a minimum of 1,590 Tigers were seized in Tiger range States, an average of two Tigers per week.

Other existential threats to tigers

• Man-Animal conflict: This largely seems a normal phenomenon in India. We broadly remember the case of Tigress Avni which was finally shot dead by the forest officials in Maharashtra.
• Shrinking habitat: This often leads to territorial conflicts among the Tigers.
• Issues with Tourism: Excess of tourist activities is problematic for animals. Frequent visits in reserved forests areas disrupt them to move freely for their prey.
• Climate Change: The effects of climate change and floods are a major problem.  The latest study by WWF shows that Sundarban which is one of the biggest home of tigers in India would sink entirely in 2070.

Way forward

• The process of tiger conservation should be more dynamic and compatible with the future possibilities of climatic changes as well.
• The Forest Department and the Central government can collaborate to protect the natural corridors to ensure the free movement of the tigers for better food resources.
• Campaigns such as ‘Save the Tiger’ are recommended as effective measures to make people across the country and globe aware of the significance of conserving tiger species.
• Sensitization of local communities against poaching is also a crucial measure in this regard.
• We have to make the environment and development co-exist and go hand in hand by planning our future developmental goals in such a manner that our environmental goals are not compromised.

 

7th Apr 2022

Government Bodies Related To Environment

Central Pollution Control Board

Established: It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

Objective: To provide technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

Key Functions:

• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning prevention and control of water and air pollution and improvement of the quality of air.
• Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
• Coordinate the activities of the State Board and resolve disputes among them
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor investigation and research relating to problems of water and air pollution, and for their prevention, control or abatement
• Plan and organise training of persons engaged in the programme on the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
• Organise through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programme on the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air pollution and the measures devised for their effective prevention, control or abatement;
• Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents as well as for stack gas cleaning devices, stacks and ducts;
• Disseminate information in respect of matters relating to water and air pollution and their prevention and control
• Lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Governments concerned, the standards for stream or well, and lay down standards for the quality of air.
• Perform such other functions as may be prescribed by the Government of India.

National Biodiversity Authority

Established When: It is a statutory autonomous body under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India established in 2003, after India signed Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992

Headquarter: Chennai

The objective of the body: Implementation of Biological Diversity Act, 2002

Key Functions:

It acts as a facilitating, regulating and advisory body to the Government of India “on issues of conservation, sustainable use of biological resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources.”

Additionally, it advises State Governments in identifying the areas of biodiversity importance (biodiversity hotspots) as heritage sites.

National Tiger conservation authority

Established: It was established in December 2005 following a recommendation of the Tiger Task Force, constituted by the Prime Minister of India for reorganised management of Project Tiger and the many Tiger Reserves in India.

Headquarter: Delhi

Objective:

• Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives become legal.
• Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of Tiger Reserves, by providing a basis for MoU with States within our federal structure.
• Providing for oversight by Parliament.
• Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Reserves.

Key Functions:

• to approve the tiger conservation plan prepared by the State Government under sub-section (3) of section 38V of this Act
• evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable ecology and disallow any ecologically unsustainable land use such as mining, industry and other projects within the tiger reserves;
• provide for management focus and measures for addressing conflicts of  men and wild animal and to emphasize on co-existence in forest areas outside the National Parks, sanctuaries or tiger reserve, in the working plan code
• provide information on protection measures including future conservation plan, estimation of population of tiger and its natural prey species, the status of habitats, disease surveillance, mortality survey, patrolling, reports on untoward happenings and such other management aspects as it may deem fit including future plan conservation
• ensure critical support including scientific, information technology and legal support for better implementation of the tiger conservation plan
• facilitate ongoing capacity building programme for skill development of officers and staff of tiger reserves.

Animal Welfare Board of India

Established When: It was established in 1962 under Section 4 of The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960.

Headquarter: Ballabhgarh

Objective: To advise Government on Animal Welfare Laws and promotes animal welfare in the country.

Key Functions:

• Recognition of Animal Welfare Organisations: The Board oversees Animal Welfare Organisations (AWOs) by granting recognition to them if they meet its guidelines. The organisation must submit paperwork; agree to nominate a representative of the Animal Welfare Board of India on its Executive Committee, and to submit to regular inspections. After meeting the requirements and inspection, the organisation is considered for grant of recognition.
• The AWBI also appoints key people to the positions of (Hon) Animal Welfare Officers, who serve as the key point of contact between the people, the government and law enforcement agencies.
• Financial assistance: The Board provides financial assistance to recognised Animal Welfare Organisations (AWOs), who submit applications to the Board. Categories of grants include Regular Grant, Cattle Rescue Grant, Provision of Shelter House for looking after the Animals, Animal Birth Control (ABC) Programme, Provision of Ambulance for the animals in distress and Natural Calamity grant.
• Animal welfare laws and Rules: The Board suggests changes to laws and rules about animal welfare issues. In 2011, a new draft Animal Welfare Act was published for comment. Guidance is also offered to organisations and officials such as the police to help them interpret and apply the laws.
• Raising awareness: The Board issues publications to raise awareness of various animal welfare issues. The Board’s Education Team gives talks on animal welfare subjects, and trains members of the community to be Board Certified Animal Welfare Educators.

Forest Survey of India

Established When:  It is a government organization in India under the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for conducting forest surveys and studies. The organization came into being in, 1981.

Headquarter: Dehradun, Uttarakhand

Objective

The objective of the organization is monitoring periodically the changing situation of land and forest resources and present the data for national planning; conservation and management of environmental preservation and implementation of social forestry projects.

Key Functions

• The Functions of the Forest Survey of India are:
• To prepare State of Forest Report biennially, providing an assessment of the latest forest cover in the country and monitoring changes in these.
• To conduct an inventory in forest and non-forest areas and develop a database on forest tree resources.
• To prepare thematic maps on 1:50,000 scale, using aerial photographs.
• To function as a nodal agency for collection, compilation, storage and dissemination of spatial database on forest resources.
• To conduct training of forestry personnel in the application of technologies related to resources survey, remote sensing, GIS, etc.
• To strengthen research & development infrastructure in FSI and to conduct research on applied forest survey techniques.
• To support State/UT Forest Departments (SFD) in forest resources survey, mapping and inventory.
• To undertake forestry-related special studies/consultancies and custom made training courses for SFD’s and other organizations on a project basis.

Forest Survey of India assesses forest cover of the country every 2 years by digital interpretation of remote sensing satellite data and publishes the results in a biennial report called ‘State of Forest Report'(SFR).

Central Zoo Authority of India

Established: It was established in 1992 and constituted under the Wild Life (Protection) Act.

Headquarter: Delhi

Objective 

The main objective of the authority is to complement the national effort in the conservation of wildlife.

Standards and norms for housing, upkeep, health care and overall management of animals in zoos have been laid down under the Recognition of Zoo Rules, 1992.   

Key Functions

• Since its inception in 1992, the Authority has evaluated 513 zoos, out of which 167 have been recognized and 346 refused recognition.
• The Authority’s role is more of a facilitator than a regulator.  It, therefore, provides technical and financial assistance to such zoos which have the potential to attain the desired standard in animal management. Only such captive facilities which have neither the managerial skills nor the requisite resources are asked to close down.
• Apart from the primary function of the grant of recognition and release of financial assistance, the Central Zoo Authority also regulates the exchange of animals of the endangered category listed under Schedule-I and II of the Wildlife (Protection Act) among zoos.  
• Exchange of animals between Indian and foreign zoos is also approved by the Authority before the requisite clearances under EXIM Policy and the CITES permits are issued by the competent authority.  
• The Authority also coordinates and implements programmes on capacity building of zoo personnel, planned conservation breeding programmes and ex-situ research including biotechnological intervention for the conservation of species for complementing in-situ conservation efforts in the country.

Major UN climate negotiations under UNFCCC- Timeline

1992—

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted and opened for signatures in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit.

154 signatories to the UNFCCC agreed to stabilize “greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.”

The treaty is not legally binding because it sets no mandatory limits on GHG emissions. Instead, the treaty provides for future negotiations to set emissions limits. The first principal revision is the Kyoto Protocol.

1994—

The UNFCCC Treaty entered into force after receiving 50 ratifications.

1997—

KYOTO PROTOCOL

COP 3 was held in Kyoto, Japan. On December 11, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted by consensus with more than 150 signatories.

The Protocol included legally binding emissions targets for developed country Parties for the six major GHGs, which are-

• Carbon dioxide.
• Methane.
• Nitrous oxide.
• Hydrofluorocarbons.
• Perfluorocarbons, and
• Sulfur hexafluoride.

Annex of the Kyoto Protocol

• Annex 1 – Industrialised Countries (mainly OECD) plus economies in transition (mainly former soviet block countries) – They would mandatorily reduce GHGs, base year – 1990
• Annex 2 – Subset of Annex 1,  Industrialised Countries (mainly OECD), would also provide finances and technology to non annex countries
• Non annex – not included in annex, all other countries, no binding targets
• Annex A – gases covered under Kyoto <name those 7 gases>
• Annex B – Binding targets for each Annex 1 country i.e Japan will reduce emission by X%, Australia by Y% 

The Protocol offered additional means of meeting targets by way of three market-based mechanisms:

• Emissions trading.
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
• Joint Implementation (JI).

Under the Protocol, industrialized countries’ actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.

India ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002.

2000—

COP 6 part I was held in The Hague, Netherlands. Negotiations faltered, and parties agreed to meet again.

COP 6part II was held in Bonn, Germany. The consensus was reached on what was called the Bonn Agreements.

All nations except the United States agreed on the mechanisms for implementation of the Kyoto Protocol.

The U.S. participated in observatory status only.

2001—

COP 7 was held in Marrakesh, Morocco. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol were adopted and called the Marrakesh Accords.

The Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) was established to “finance projects relating to: adaptation; technology transfer and capacity building; energy transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste management; and economic diversification.”

The Least Developed Countries Fund was also “established to support a work programme to assist Least Developed Country Parties (LDCs) carry out, inter alia [among other things], the preparation and implementation of national adaptation programmes of action (NAPAs).”

2005—

COP 11/CMP 1 were held in Montreal, Canada. This conference was the first to take place after the Kyoto Protocol took force. The annual meeting between the parties (COP) was supplemented by the first annual Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP).

The countries that had ratified the UNFCCC, but not accepted the Kyoto Protocol, had observer status at the latter conference.

The parties addressed issues such as “capacity building, development and transfer of technologies, the adverse effects of climate change on developing and least developed countries, and several financial and budget-related issues, including guidelines to the Global Environment Facility (GEF).” (UNFCCC)

2007—

COP 13/CMP 3 were held in Bali. COP parties agreed to a Bali Action Plan to negotiate GHG mitigation actions after the Kyoto Protocol expires in 2012. The Bali Action Plan did not require binding GHG targets for developing countries.

2009—

June – As part of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process, governments met in Bonn, Germany, to begin discussions on draft negotiations that would form the basis of an agreement at Copenhagen.

December – COP 15 was held in Copenhagen, Denmark.

It failed to reach agreement on binding commitments after the Kyoto Protocol commitment period ends in 2012.

During the summit, leaders from the United States, Brazil, China, Indonesia, India and South Africa agreed to what would be called the Copenhagen Accord which recognized the need to limit the global temperature rise to 2°C based on the science of climate change.

While no legally binding commitments were required by the deal, countries were asked to pledge voluntary GHG reduction targets. $100 billion was pledged in climate aid to developing countries.

2012—

COP 18 was held in Doha, Qatar.

Parties agreed to extend the expiring Kyoto Protocol, creating a second commitment phase that would begin on January 1, 2013 and end December 31, 2020. India ratified the second commitment period in 2017.

Parties failed to set a pathway to provide $100 billion per year by 2020 for developing countries to finance climate change adaptation, as agreed upon at COP 15 in Copenhagen.

The concept of “loss and damage” was introduced as developed countries pledged to help developing countries and small island nations pay for the losses and damages from climate change that they are already experiencing.

2013—

COP 19 was held in Warsaw, Poland.

Parties were expected to create a roadmap for the 2015 COP in Paris where a legally binding treaty to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is expected to be finalized (in order to come into effect in 2020).

Differences of opinion on responsibility of GHG emissions between developing and developed countries led to a flexible ruling on the wording and a plan to discuss further at the COP 20 in Peru.

A non-binding agreement was reached among countries to set up a system tackling the “loss and damage” issue, although details of how to set up the mechanism were not discussed.

Concerning climate finance, the United Nations’ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) Program, aimed at preserving the world’s forests, was formally adopted.

Little progress was made on developed countries committing to the agreed upon plan of providing $100 billion per year by 2020 to developing countries.

2015—

PARIS AGREEMENT

COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris.

Aims of the Paris Agreement-

1.Keep the global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial level.

2.Pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

3.Strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change.

COP 23 – BONN(GERMANY)

First COP to be hosted by a small Island developing nation.
Countries continued to negotiate the finer details of how the agreement will work from 2020 onwards.

COP 24 – KATOWICE(POLLAND)

• Countries settled on most of the tricky elements of the “rulebook” for putting the 2015 Paris agreement into practice.
• This includes how governments will measure, report on and verify their emissions-cutting efforts, a key element because it ensures all countries are held to proper standards and will find it harder to wriggle out of their commitments.
  Read in detail here

COP 26: Glasgow Agreement

What was achieved?
1. Mitigation:

• The Glasgow agreement has emphasised that stronger action in the current decade was most critical to achieving the 1.5-degree target.

2. Adaptation:

• The Glasgow Climate Pact has:

1. Asked the developed countries to at least double the money being provided for adaptation by 2025 from the 2019 levels.
2. Created a two-year work programme to define a global goal on adaptation.

3. Finance: 

• In 2009, developed countries had promised to mobilise at least $100 billion every year from 2020.
• The developed nations have now said that they will arrange this amount of 100 billion annual fund by 2023.

4. Accounting earlier failures:

• The pact has expressed “deep regrets” over the failure of the developed countries to deliver on their $100 billion promise.
• It has asked them to arrange this money urgently and in every year till 2025.

5. Loss and Damage:

• There is no institutional mechanism to compensate nations for the losses, or provide them help in the form of relief and rehabilitation after suffering from climate disasters.
• The loss and damage provision in the Paris Agreement seeks to address that.
• Thanks to a push from many nations, substantive discussions on loss and damage could take place in Glasgow.

6. Carbon Markets:

• The Glasgow Pact has offered some reprieve to the developing nations.
• It has allowed these carbon credits to be used in meeting countries’ first NDC targets
  Read in detail here

NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBURTIONS (NDCs)

• The national pledges by countries to cut emissions are voluntary.
• The Paris Agreement requires all Parties to put forward their best efforts through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years ahead.
• This includes requirements that all Parties report regularly on their emissions and on their implementation efforts.
• In 2018, Parties will take stock of the collective efforts in relation to progress towards the goal set in the Paris Agreement.
• There will also be a global stock take every 5 years to assess the collective progress towards achieving the purpose of the Agreement and to inform further individual actions by Parties.

Some facts-

• It entered into force in November 2016 after (ratification by 55 countries that account for at least 55% of global emissions) had been met.
• The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century.
• In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement, the parties will also “pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C.”
• The 1.5 °C goal will require zero-emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050, according to some scientists.
• The developed countries reaffirmed the commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in climate finance by 2020 and agreed to continue mobilizing finance at the level of $100 billion a year until 2025.
• In 2017, United States announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation.
• In accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, the earliest possible effective withdrawal date by the United States cannot be before November 2020. Thus, The U.S. will remain a signatory till November 2020.

RATIFICATION TO KIGALI AGREEMENT

The Union Cabinet has given its approval for ratification of the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer for phase down of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by India.

What is Montreal Protocol?

• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international agreement made in 1987.
• It was designed to stop the production and import of ozone-depleting substances and reduce their concentration in the atmosphere to help protect the earth’s ozone layer.
• It sits under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.

What is the Kigali Amendment?

• It is an international agreement to gradually reduce the consumption and production of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
• It is a legally binding agreement designed to create rights and obligations in international law.
• While HFCs do not deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, they have high global warming potential ranging from 12 to 14,000, which has an adverse impact on climate.
  Read in detail here

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6th Apr 2022

Dear Aspirants,

This Spotlight is a part of our Mission Nikaalo Prelims-2022

Session Details

Morning 12 PM  – Prelims Spotlight Session

Evening 06:30  PM  – TIKDAM/MCQs Session

Noon 03:00 PM – CSAT Google Meet Session

Evening 08 PM  – Tests on Alternate Days

Download Habitat app from the Playstore Join our Official Civilsdaily Space for GS and CSAT Here

Annual financial statement:

The Union Budget is the annual financial statement that contains the government’s revenue and expenditure for a fiscal year.

It may also include planned sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities, costs and expenses, assets, liabilities and cash flows.

The statement details the revenues from all sources, and expenditure on all activities that the government will undertake for the fiscal year. The fiscal year is calculated from 1 April-31 March.

Under Article 112 of the Constitution, the government has to present a statement of estimated revenue and expenditure for every fiscal. This statement is called the annual financial statement. This document is divided into three sections: For each of these funds, the central government is required to present a statement of revenue and expenditure.

1. Consolidated Fund:

The Consolidated Fund of India, created under Article 266 of the Indian Constitution, includes the revenues received by the government and expenses made by it.

All the revenue that the government receives through direct (income tax, corporation tax etc.) or indirect tax (Goods and Services Tax or GST) go into the Consolidated Fund of India.

Revenue from non-tax sources like dividends, profits from the PSUs, and income from general services also contribute to the fund. Recoveries of loans, earnings from disinvestment and repayment of debts issued by the Centre also contribute to the fund.

However, no money can be withdrawn for meeting expenses until the government gets the approval of the Parliament. Examples of expenditure include wages, salaries and pension of government employees, and other fixed costs. The repayment of debts incurred by the government is also done through the Consolidated Fund of India.

The Consolidated Fund of India is divided into five parts:

• Revenue account – receipts,
• Revenue account – disbursements,
• Capital account – receipts,
• Capital account – disbursements, and
• Disbursements ‘charged’ on the Consolidated Fund of India.

Disbursements ‘charged’ on the Consolidated Fund of India is a special category within the Consolidated Fund of India which is not put to vote in the Parliament.

This means whatever comes under this category need to be paid, whether the Budget is passed or not.

The salary and allowances of the President, speaker and deputy speaker of the Lok Sabha, chairman and deputy chairman of the Rajya Sabha, salaries and allowances of Supreme Court judges, pensions of Supreme Court and High Court judges come under this category.

2.Contingency fund:

Like the Consolidated Fund of India, the Contingency Fund of India constitutes a part of the annual financial statement.

Established under Article 267(1) of the Indian Constitution, the fund is maintained by the ministry of finance on behalf of the President of India.

As the name suggests, the Contingency Fund of India is an account maintained for meeting expenses during any unforeseen emergencies.

Parliamentary approval for such unforeseen expenditure is obtained, ex- post-facto, and an equivalent amount is drawn from the Consolidated Fund of India to recoup the Contingency Fund after such ex-post-facto approval.

3. Public account.

Article 266 of the Constitution defines the Public Account as being those funds that are received on behalf of the Government of India.

Money held by the government in a trust — such as in the case of Provident Funds, Small Savings collections, income of government set apart for expenditure on specific objects like road development, primary education, reserve/special Funds, etc — are kept in the Public Account.

Public Account funds do not belong to the government and have to be finally paid back to the persons and authorities that deposited them.

Parliamentary authorisation for such payments is not required.

However, when money is withdrawn from the Consolidated Fund with the approval of Parliament and kept in the Public Account for expenditure for a specific purpose, it is submitted for a vote in Parliament.

Appropriation bill

Appropriation Bill is a money bill that allows the government to withdraw funds from the Consolidated Fund of India to meet its expenses during the course of a financial year.

As per Article 114 of the Constitution, the government can withdraw money from the Consolidated Fund only after receiving approval from Parliament.

To put it simply, the Finance Bill contains provisions on financing the expenditure of the government, and Appropriation Bill specifies the quantum and purpose for withdrawing money.

Vote-on-account

The Constitution says that no money can be withdrawn by the government from the Consolidated Fund of India except under appropriation made by law.

For that, an appropriation bill is passed during the Budget process.

However, the appropriation bill may take time to pass through the Parliament and become a law. Meanwhile, the government would need permission to spend even a single penny from April 1 when the new financial year starts.

Vote on the account is the permission to withdraw money from the Consolidated Fund of India in that period, usually two months.

Vote on the account is a formality and requires no debate. When elections are scheduled a few months into the new financial year, the government seeks vote on account for four months. Essentially, vote on account is the interim permission of the parliament to the government to spend money.

Corporation tax:

Corporation tax is a direct tax imposed on the net income or profit that enterprises make from their businesses. Companies, both public and privately registered in India under the Companies Act 1956, are liable to pay corporation tax. This tax is levied at a specific rate according to the provisions of the Income Tax Act, 1961.

Fringe benefits tax (FBT):
The taxation of perquisites – or fringe benefits – provided by an employer to his employees, in addition to the cash salary or wages paid, is fringe benefits tax. It was introduced in Budget 2005-06. The government felt many companies were disguising perquisites such as club facilities as ordinary business expenses, which escaped taxation altogether. Employers have to now pay FBT on a percentage of the expense incurred on such perquisites.

Direct Tax:

A direct tax is paid directly by an individual or organization to the imposing entity. A taxpayer, for example, pays direct taxes to the government for different purposes, including real property tax, personal property tax, income tax, or taxes on assets. Direct taxes are based on the ability-to-pay principle. This economic principle states that those who have more resources or earn a higher income should pay more taxes.

Indirect Tax
In the case of indirect taxes, the incidence of tax is usually not on the person who pays the tax. These are largely taxes on expenditure and include Customs, excise and service tax.

Indirect taxes are considered regressive, the burden on the rich and the poor is alike. That is why governments strive to raise a higher proportion of taxes through direct taxes. Moving on, we come to the next important receipt item in the revenue account, non-tax revenue.

Non-tax revenue:

Other than taxation being a primary source of income, the government also earns a recurring income, which is called non-tax revenue. While sources of tax revenue are few, the sources of non-tax revenue are many, with the number of collections per source. Although there are many sources of non-tax revenue, the amount per source is much less than that for tax revenue.

For example, when citizens use services offered by the government, they pay bills, which are categorised as non-tax revenue, as the government provides infrastructure support to implement the services. Non-tax revenue also includes the interest collected by the government on the loans or funds offered to states.

Grants-in-aid and contributions
The third receipt item in the revenue account is relatively small grants-in-aid and contributions. These are in the nature of pure transfers to the government without any repayment obligation.
These include expense incurred on organs of state such as Parliament, judiciary and elections. A substantial amount goes into administering fiscal services such as tax collection. The biggest item is the interest payment on loans taken by the government. Defence and other services like police also get a sizeable share. Having looked at receipts and expenditure on revenue account we come to an important item, the difference between the two, the revenue deficit.

Revenue deficit:

Revenue deficit arises when the government’s revenue expenditure exceeds the total revenue receipts.

Revenue deficit includes those transactions that have a direct impact on a government’s current income and expenditure. This represents that the government’s own earnings are not sufficient to meet the day-to-day operations of its departments. Revenue deficit turns into borrowings when the government spends more than what it earns and has to resort to the external borrowings.

               Revenue Deficit= Total revenue receipts – Total revenue expenditure.

Revenue Deficit deals only with the government’s revenue receipts and revenue expenditures.

Note that revenue receipts are receipts which neither create liability nor lead to a reduction in assets.

It is further divided into two heads:

• Receipt from Tax (Direct Tax,  Indirect Tax)
• Receipts from Non-Tax Revenue

Revenue Expenditure is referred to as the expenditure that does not result in the creation of assets reduction of liabilities. It is further divided into two types

• Plan revenue expenditure
• Non-plan revenue expenditure

Fiscal Deficit:
The fiscal deficit is defined as an excess of total budget expenditure over total budget receipts excluding borrowings during a fiscal year. In simple words, it is the amount of borrowing the government has to resort to meet its expenses. A large deficit means a large amount of borrowing. The fiscal deficit is a measure of how much the government needs to borrow from the market to meet its expenditure when its resources are inadequate.

Primary deficit:

Primary deficit is defined as a fiscal deficit of current year minus interest payments on previous borrowings.

         Primary deficit= Fiscal deficit – Interest payment on the previous borrowing

In other words, whereas fiscal deficit indicates borrowing requirement inclusive of interest payment, the primary deficit indicates borrowing requirement exclusive of interest payment (i.e., amount of loan).

We have seen that borrowing requirement of the government includes not only accumulated debt, but also interest payment on the debt. If we deduct ‘interest payment on debt’ from borrowing, the balance is called the primary deficit.

Public debt:

Public debt receipts and public debt disbursals are borrowings and repayments during the year, respectively. The difference is the net accretion to the public debt. Public debt can be split into internal (money borrowed within the country) and external (funds borrowed from non-Indian sources). Internal debt comprises treasury bills, market stabilisation schemes, ways and means advance, and securities against small savings.

Ways and means advance (WMA):

One of RBI’s roles is to serve as banker to both central and state governments. In this capacity, RBI provides temporary support to tide over mismatches in their receipts and payments in the form of ways and means advances.

CESS:
This is an additional levy on the basic tax liability. Governments resort to cess for meeting specific expenditure.

Dividend distribution tax:

A dividend is a return given by a company to its shareholders out of the profits earned by the company in a particular year. Dividend constitutes income in the hands of the shareholders which ideally should be subject to income tax.

However, the income tax laws in India provided for an exemption of the dividend income received from Indian companies by the investors by levying a tax called the Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT) on the company paying the dividend. This tax has been abolished in the 2020-21 budget.

FRBM Act 2003:

The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act (FRBM Act), 2003, establishes financial discipline to reduce the fiscal deficit.

What are the objectives of the FRBM Act?

The FRBM Act aims to introduce transparency in India’s fiscal management systems. The Act’s long-term objective is for India to achieve fiscal stability and to give the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) flexibility to deal with inflation in India. The FRBM Act was enacted to introduce a more equitable distribution of India’s debt over the years.

Key features of the FRBM Act

The FRBM Act made it mandatory for the government to place the following along with the Union Budget documents in Parliament annually:

1. Medium Term Fiscal Policy Statement

2. Macroeconomic Framework Statement

3. Fiscal Policy Strategy Statement

The FRBM Act proposed that revenue deficit, fiscal deficit, tax revenue and the total outstanding liabilities be projected as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) in the medium-term fiscal policy statement.

Fiscal Performance Index (FPI)

• The composite FPI developed by CII is an innovative tool using multiple indicators to examine the quality of Budgets at the Central and State levels.
• The index has been constructed using UNDP’s Human Development Index methodology which comprises six components for holistic assessment of the quality of government budgets, subsidies, pensions and defence in GDP
• Quality of capital expenditure: measured by the share of capital expenditure (other than defence) in GDP
• Quality of revenue: the ratio of net tax revenue to GDP (own tax revenue in case of States)
• Degree of fiscal prudence I: fiscal deficit to GDP
• Degree of fiscal prudence II: revenue deficit to GDP and
• Debt index: Change in debt and guarantees to GDP

Other measures of FPI

• As per the new index, expenditure on infrastructure, education, healthcare and other social sectors can be considered beneficial for economic growth.

Sabka Vishwas-Legacy Dispute Resolution Scheme

• This Scheme is introduced to resolve and settle legacy cases of the Central Excise and Service Tax.
• The proposed scheme would cover all the past disputes of taxes which may have got subsumed in GST; namely Central Excise, Service Tax and Cesses.
• The Government expects the Scheme to be availed by a large number of taxpayers for closing their pending disputes relating to legacy Service Tax and Central Excise cases that are now subsumed under GST so they can focus on GST.
• The Scheme is, especially, tailored to free a large number of small taxpayers of their pending disputes with the tax administration.

Components of the Scheme

• The two main components of the Scheme are dispute resolution and amnesty.
• The dispute resolution component is aimed at liquidating the legacy cases of Central Excise and Service Tax that are subsumed in GST and are pending in litigation at various forums.
• The amnesty component of the Scheme offers an oppor­tunity to the taxpayers to pay the outstanding tax and be free of any other consequence under the law.
• The most attractive aspect of the Scheme is that it provides substantial relief in the tax dues for all categories of cases as well as full waiver of interest, fine, penalty,
• In all these cases, there would be no other liability of interest, fine or penalty. There is also a complete amnesty from prosecution.

Direct Tax Code:

• The Direct Tax Code (DTC) is an attempt by the Govern­ment of India to simplify the direct tax laws in India.
• It will revise, consolidate and simplify the structure of direct tax laws in India into a single legislation.
• When implemented, it will replace the Income-tax Act, 1961 (ITA), and other direct tax legislation like the Wealth Tax Act, 1957.
• The task force was constituted by the government to frame draft legislation for this proposed DTC in November 2017 and review the existing Income Tax Act.

Direct Tax:

• These are the taxes, paid directly to the government by the taxpayer. Under the direct tax system, the incidence and impact of taxation fall on the same entity, which cannot be transferred to another person.
• It is termed as a progressive tax because the proportion of tax liability rises as an individual or entity’s income increases.
• Examples- Income tax, corporate tax, Dividend Distri­bution Tax, Capital Gain Tax, Security Transaction Tax.
• The system of Direct taxation is governed by the Cen­tral Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT). It is a part of the Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance.

Corporate Tax

• A corporate tax also popularly known as the company tax or the corporation tax is the tax levied on the capital or income of corporations or analogous legal entities.
• In most countries, such taxes are levied at the national level, and a tax that is similar to that imposed at the na­tional level could be imposed at the local or state levels.
• The taxes could also be termed as capital tax or income tax.
• Generally, Partnership firms are not taxed at the entity level.
• In most of nations, the corporations functioning in a country are taxed for the income from that country.
• Many countries tax all income of corporations incorpo­rated in the country or those deemed to be resident for tax purposes in the country.
• The income of the company that is to be taxed is computed similarly to the taxable income for individuals.
• Tax is generally imposed on net profits.
• In India, companies, both private and public which are registered in India under the Companies Act 1956, are liable to pay corporate tax.

Securities transaction tax (STT)

• Sale of any asset (shares, property) results in loss or profit. Depending on the time the asset is held, such profits and losses are categorised as long-term or short-term capital gain/loss.
• In Budget 2004-05, the government abolished long-term capital gains tax on shares (tax on profits made on the sale of shares held for more than a year) and replaced it with STT.
• It is a kind of turnover tax where the investor has to pay a small tax on the total consideration paid/received in a share transaction.

Banking cash transaction tax (BCTT)

• Introduced in Budget 2005-06, BCTT is a small tax on cash withdrawal from bank exceeding a particular amount in a single day.
• The basic idea is to curb the black economy and generate a record of big cash transactions

Cess

• This is an additional levy on the basic tax liability Governments resort to cess for meeting specific expenditure. For instance, both corporate and individual income is at present subject to an education cess of 2%.
• In the last Budget, the government had imposed another 1% cess – secondary and higher education cess on income tax – to finance secondary and higher education.

Countervailing Duties (CVD)

• Countervailing duty is a tax imposed on imports, over and above the basic import duty CVD is at par with the excise duty paid by the domestic manufacturers of similar goods
• This ensures a level playing field between imported goods and locally-produced ones.
• An exemption from CVD places the domestic industry at the disadvantage and over long run discourages investments in affected sectors.

Export Duty

• This is a tax levied on exports. In most instances, the object is not revenue, but to discourage exports of certain items.
• In the last Budget, for instance, the government imposed an export duty of Rs 300 per metric tonne on the export of iron ores and concentrates and Rs 2,000 per metric tonne on the export of chrome ores and concentrates.

Pass-through Status

• A pass-through status helps avoid double taxation. Mutual funds, for instance, enjoy pass-through status.
• The income earned by the funds is tax-free. Since mutual funds’ income is distributed to the unit-holders, who are in turn taxed on their income from such investments any taxation of mutual funds would amount to double taxation.
• Essentially, it means the income is merely passing through the mutual funds and, therefore, should not be taxed.
• The government allows venture funds in some sectors pass-through status to encourage investments in start-ups.

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