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Context

• Chief Ministers of States and Chief Justices of High Courts (CMCJs) participated in a joint conference in the national capital to discuss various aspects of the justice delivery system.
• Participating in the inaugural session PM Modi said that judicial reform is not merely a policy matter and Human sensitivities should be kept in the centre of all the deliberations on this issue.

Key takeaways from the CMCJ summit

• PM stressed on the importance of Mediation as an important tool for the settlement of pending cases in the courts, especially at the local level.
• CJI N V Ramanna in his remarks said a National Judicial Infrastructure Authority should be created for the standardization and improvement of judicial infrastructure which currently needs urgent attention.
• Both CJI and Prime Minister also highlighted the need to promote local languages in the courts so that people of the country feel connected with the judicial process.

The main subjects that were discussed, are as under:

• Infrastructure of Subordinate Courts
• Performance of Morning/Evening and Holiday Courts
• Conditions of Jails with particular reference to under trial prisoners
• Implementation of Information and Communication Technology
• Strengthening the Legal-Aid Programmes
• Strengthening of Juvenile Justice System
• Utilization of grants
• Review of Quality Legal Education Programmes in the States
• Post-Retirement benefits to Judges
• Model Courts and the Establishment of Commercial Courts, Commercial Division and Commercial Appellate Division High Courts
• Filling up vacancies in the High Courts

Indian Judiciary: A Backgrounder

• Our Judicial system has been the nation’s moral conscience keeper.
• It speaks truth to political power, upholds the rights of citizens, mediates between Centre-state conflicts, provides justice to the rich and poor alike, and on several momentous occasions, saved democracy itself.
• Despite its achievements, a gap between the ideal and reality has been becoming clear over the years.
• The justice delivery is slow, the appointment of judges is mired in controversy, disciplinary mechanisms scarcely work, hierarchy rather than merit is preferred, women are severely under-represented, and constitutional matters often languish in the Supreme Court for years.
• As Justice Chelameswar said in his dissent in the NJAC judgment, the courts must reform, so that they can preserve.

Challenges to the judicial system

• Lack of infrastructure of courts
• High vacancy of judges in the district judiciary
• Pendency of Cases
• Ineffective planning in the functioning of the courts
• Delay in the delivery of judgements
• Lack of transparency in appointment and transfers.
• Corruption
• Undertrials serving Jail
• Outdated laws ex. Section 124A IPC

What led to under-performance of Indian Judiciary?

The primary factors contributing to docket explosion and arrears as highlighted by Justice Malimath Committee report are as follows:

• Population explosion
• Litigation explosion
• Hasty and imperfect drafting of legislation
• Plurality and accumulation of appeals (Multiple appeals for the same issue)
• Inadequacy of judge strength
• Failure to provide adequate forums of appeal against quasi-judicial orders
• Lack of priority for disposal of old cases (due to the improper constitution of benches)

Recent developments:

Proposal for the creation of National Judicial Infrastructure Corporation (NJIC)

• The CJI has pitched to set up a National Judicial Infrastructure Corporation (NJIC) to develop judicial infrastructure in trial courts.
• He indicated a substantial gap in infrastructure and availability of basic amenities in the lower judiciary.
• There is a dearth of court halls, residential accommodation, and waiting room for litigants in trial courts, especially in smaller towns and rural areas.
• Experience shows that budgetary allocation for state judiciary often lapses since there is no independent body to supervise and execute such works.
• NJIC is expected to fill this vacuum and overcome problems related to infrastructure.

Way forward

• Creating NJIC: It will bring a revolutionary change in the judicial functioning provided the proposed body is given financial and executive powers to operate independently of the Union and the State governments.
• Appointment reforms: There are many experts who advocate the need to appoint more judges with unquestionable transparency in such appointments.
• Creating All Indian Judiciary Services: It would be a landmark move to create a pan-India Service that would result in a wide pool of qualified and committed judges entering the system.
• Technology infusion: The ethical and responsible use of AI and ML for the advancement of efficiency-enhancing can be increasingly embedded in legal and judicial processes. Ex. SUPACE.
• Legal education: This should be in alignment with the evolving dynamics of the law must be propagated in trial and constitutional courts. This will improve the competence of the judicial system.
• Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR): ADR mechanisms should be promoted for out-of-court settlements. Primary courts of appeal should be set up.

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Indian polity plays a very crucial role in the Prelims exam. If you want to ensure the cutoff marks then you can not expect a single mistake in Indian polity questions. To ensure that you follow these few pointers. We have also included some examples to ensure that you understand the points

Read the Each keyword very carefully: Polity is a game of words, even a single change will change the answer. 

Consider the following statements:

1. According to the Constitution of India a person who is eligible to vote
   can be made a minister in a State for six months even if he/she is not a member of the Legislature of that State
2. According to the Representation of People Act, 1951, a person
   convicted of a criminal offence and sentenced to imprisonment for five years is permanently disqualified from contesting an election
   even after his release from prison
   Which of the statements given above is are correct?
   (a) 1 only
   (b) 2 only
   (c) Both 1 and 2
   (d) Neither 1 nor 2
   
   In above question, At first S1 seems correct but when we look carefully it says any eligible voter but the criteria is above 25 years. Similarly S2 says Permanently, but it is temporary

Read all the options very carefully: Even if you know that the first option is the correct answer, look for other options as well. There are chances that according to the question it is not the most appropriate one.

The Preamble to the Constitution of India, is
(a) part of the Constitution but has no legal effect
(b) not a part of the Constitution and has no legal effect either
(c) a part of the Constitution and has the same legal effect as any other part
(d) a part of the Constitution but has no legal effect independently of other parts.

In the above question A looks correct but when we read all options then D looks more appropriate.

Go through the PYQs properly: Understanding PYQs will not help in Polity but in the entire paper. For example take a question from 2017

Which one of the following is not a feature to Indian federalism?

(a) There is an independent judiciary in India. 

(b) Powers have been clearly divided between the Centre and the States.

 (c) The federating units have been given unequal representation in the Rajya Sabha. 

(d) It is the result of an agreement among the federating units

Above question indicates that Independent Judiciary is a feature, Now look at 2021 question

Which one of the following in Indian polity is an essential
feature that indicates that it is federal in character?
(a) The independence of judiciary is safeguarded.
(b) The Union Legislature has elected representatives from
constituent units.
(c) The Union Cabinet can have elected representatives
from regional parties.
(d) The Fundamental Rights are enforceable by Courts of
Law

Understand NCERTs carefully: Nowadays UPSC has a tendency to ask questions from NCERTs, especially from 11th ncert. 

Avoid using elimination rules: UPSC expects you to remember Indian Polity therefore the scope is very narrow to use Tikdam rules.

Revision: Most of the questions in Polity are from very spefic chapers or source. They are 11th ncerts, Historical Background, Preamble, Fundamental Rights, DPSPs, Parliament, State Legislature, President, Governor, Supreme Court and High Courts. Make sure that you have the best command on the above topics.

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Important Acts in News

1. The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization (Amendment) Bill, 2021)

• The Act provides for the bifurcation of the state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) into the Union Territory of J&K and Union Territory of Ladakh. 
• The Act provides that Article 239A of the Constitution, which is applicable to the union territory of Puducherry, shall also apply to the union territory of J&K.  Article 239A provides for the constitution of a union territory of Puducherry with: (i) a legislature, which may be elected, or partly nominated and partly elected, or (ii) a Council of Ministers. 
• In addition to Article 239A, any other provision of the Constitution which refers to elected members of a legislative assembly of a state and is also applicable to the union territory of Puducherry, will apply to the union territory of J&K.
•  The Act specifies that the members of the Indian Administrative Service, the Indian Police Service and the Indian Forest Service serving in the state of J&K would continue to serve in the two union territories, based on allocation decided by the central government.

2. The Inland Vessels Bill, 2021

• The Bill seeks to introduce a uniform regulatory framework for inland vessel navigation across the country.
• The central government will prescribe the: (i) classification, (ii) standards of design, construction, and crew accommodation, and (iii) type and periodicity of surveys, for these vessels.  Construction or modification of such vessels will require prior approval of a designated authority, as prescribed by the central government.
• To operate in inland waters, all such vessels must have a certificate of survey, and a certificate of registration. The certificate of survey will be granted by state governments, in a form as prescribed by the central government.
• The central government will prescribe the minimum number of people that vessels must have, for various roles.
• Vessels will discharge or dispose of sewage, as per the standards specified by the central government.  The central government will notify the list of pollutants which will be prohibited for discharge or disposal.  State governments will grant vessels a certificate of prevention of pollution.
• The Bill provides for a development fund.
• The Bill empowers state governments to delegate certain functions related to non-mechanically propelled inland vessels to their local governments. 

3. The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2021

•  The Act empowers the central government to reserve any mine (other than coal, lignite, and atomic minerals) to be leased through an auction for a particular end-use.The Bill provides that no mine will be reserved for particular end-use.
• The Bill empowers the central government to specify a time period for completion of the auction process in consultation with the state government.  If the state government is unable to complete the auction process within this period, the auctions may be conducted by the central government.
• The Act provides that the period of mining leases granted to government companies will be prescribed by the central government.

4. The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (Amendment) Bill, 2021

• The Code provides a time-bound process for resolving the insolvency of corporate debtors (within 330 days) called the corporate insolvency resolution process (CIRP).
• The Bill introduces an alternate insolvency resolution process for micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs), called the pre-packaged insolvency resolution process (PIRP).  Unlike CIRP, PIRP may be initiated only by debtors.
• Application for initiating PIRP may be filed in the event of a default of at least one lakh rupees.
• During PIRP, the debtor will be provided with a moratorium under which certain actions against the debtor will be prohibited.  These include filing or continuation of suits, execution of court orders, or recovery of property.

CIRP: Under CIRP, a committee of creditors is constituted to decide on the insolvency resolution.  The committee may consider a resolution plan which typically provides for the payoff of debt by merger, acquisition, or restructuring of the company.  If a resolution plan is not approved by the committee of creditors within the specified time, the company is liquidated.  During CIRP, the affairs of the company are managed by the resolution professional (RP), who is appointed to conduct CIRP.

5. The Constitution (One Hundred and Twenty-Seventh Amendment) Bill, 2021

• The Bill amends the Constitution to allow states and union territories to prepare their own list of socially and educationally backward classes. 

List of socially and educationally backward classes:

          The National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) was established under the National Commission for Backward Classes Act, 1993.

             The 2021 Bill amends this to provide that the President may notify the list of socially and educationally backward classes only for purposes of the central government.  This central list will be prepared and maintained by the central government.  Further, the Bill enables states and union territories to prepare their own list of socially and educationally backward classes. 

6. The Election Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2021

• The bill provides that the electoral registration officer may require a person to furnish their Aadhaar number for establishing their identity. 
• Persons will not be denied inclusion in the electoral roll or have their names deleted from the roll, if they are unable to furnish Aadhaar number due to sufficient cause as prescribed. 
• The Bill provides four qualifying dates in a calendar year, which will be January 1, April 1, July 1, and October 1. Earlier it was only 1 i.e. January 1.

7. The Central Vigilance Commission (Amendment) Bill, 2021

•  It replaces the Central Vigilance Commission (Amendment) Ordinance, 2021.  The Bill seeks to amend the Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003.  The 2003 Act provides for the constitution of a Central Vigilance Commission to conduct inquiries into offences alleged to have been committed under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988.  
• Under the 2003 Act, the Director of Enforcement is appointed by the central government, on the recommendation of a Committee.This Committee is chaired by the Central Vigilance Commissioner, and includes the Secretaries from the Ministries of Home Affairs, Personnel, and the Revenue Department. 
• The Bill adds that the tenure of the Director may be extended by up to one year at a time, till the completion of five years from the initial appointment.  Such extensions may be granted in public interest, on the recommendation of the Committee.

8. The Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2020

• Under the Act, certain persons are prohibited to accept any foreign contribution.  These include: election candidates, editor or publisher of a newspaper, judges, government servants, members of any legislature, and political parties, among others
• The Amendment prohibits the transfer of foreign contribution to any other person.
• The Act states that a person may accept foreign contribution if they have: (i) obtained a certificate of registration from central government, or (ii) not registered, but obtained prior permission from the government to accept foreign contribution
• Under the Act, a person who receives foreign contribution must use it only for the purpose for which the contribution is received.Further, they must not use more than 20% of the contribution for meeting administrative expenses.

9. The Major Port Authorities Bill, 2020

• The Bill will apply to the major ports of Chennai, Cochin, Jawaharlal Nehru Port, Kandla, Kolkata, Mumbai, New Mangalore, Mormugao, Paradip, V.O. Chidambaranar, and Vishakhapatnam.
• The Bill provides for the creation of a Board of Major Port Authority for each major port.  These Boards will replace the existing Port Trusts. 
• Under the 1963 Act, the Board has to seek prior sanction of the central government to raise any loan.
• The Bill provides that the Board may use its funds for providing social benefits(Corporate Social Responsibility)
• The Bill provides for the constitution of an Adjudicatory Board by the central government.

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Context

• Apple recently announced that consumers will have the right to purchase spare components of their products.
• Google also announced plans to expand access to the parts and tools that consumers need to fix their own devices.
• These announcements by big-tech companies follow widespread calls for Right To Repair reforms.

In this article, we will analyze what is the Right to Repair, how it helps consumers like you and me and how will these reforms help in protecting the environment.

Right to Repair Movement: A Backgrounder

What is Right to Repair?

• It refers to proposed government legislation that would allow consumers the ability to repair and modify their own consumer products (e.g. electronic, automotive devices).
• The idea behind “right to repair” is in the name: If you own something, you should be able to repair it yourself or take it to a technician of your choice.
• People are pretty used to this concept when it comes to older cars and appliances, but right-to-repair advocates argue that modern tech, especially anything with a computer chip inside, is rarely repairable.

The Right to Repair movement aims for:

1. Easy repair: The device should be constructed and designed in a manner that allows easy repairs
2. Access to critical components: End users and independent repair providers should be able to access original spare parts and tools (software as well as physical tools) needed to repair the device at fair market conditions
3. No technical barriers: Repairs should by design be possible and not hindered by software programming
4. Proper communication: The repairability of a device should be clearly communicated by the manufacturer.

How did it came to existence?

• The average consumer purchases an electronic gadget, knowing that it will very quickly become obsolete as its manufacturer releases newer and more amped up version.
• As your device grows older, issues start to crop up — your smartphone may slow down to a point where it is almost unusable, or your gaming console may require one too many hard resets.
• When this happens, more often than not, you are left at the mercy of manufacturers who make repairs inaccessible and an inordinately expensive affair.

Why is such right significant?

• Lifespan enhancement: The goal of the movement is to increase the lifespan of products and to keep them from ending up in landfills.
• Against planned obsolescence: The electronic manufacturers are encouraging such culture so that devices are designed specifically to last a limited amount of time and to be replaced.
• Scarcity of natural resources: Obsolescence leads to immense pressure on the environment and wasted natural resources.
• Mitigating climate change: Manufacturing an electronic device is a highly polluting process. It makes use of polluting sources of energy, such as fossil fuel.
• Boost to repair economy: Right to repair advocates also argue that this will help boost business for small repair shops, which are an important part of local economies.

Issues with obsolete devices

• Unfair trade practice:  For manufacturers, either of these options is a win-win case, because high-priced repairs, as well as new sales, mean more profits.
• High cost to consumers: This often led to higher consumer costs or drive consumers to replace devices instead of repairing them.
• Generation of E-waste: The global community is concerned over the continuously growing size of the e-waste stream.
• Recyclability: Up to 95% of raw materials used to produce electronic devices can be recycled, while the vast majority of newly produced devices use little to none recycled material due to the higher cost.

Why do electronic manufacturers oppose this movement?

Large tech companies, including Apple, Microsoft, Amazon and Tesla, have been lobbying against the right to repair.

• IPR violations through reverse engineering: Their argument is that opening up their intellectual property to third party repair services.
• Threats to device safety: Amateur repairers could lead to exploitation and impact the safety and security of their devices.
• Personal data security: Tesla, for instance, has fought against right to repair advocacy, stating that such initiatives threaten data security and cyber security.
• Sheer casualization: Tech giant has allowed repairs of its devices only by authorised technicians and not providing spare parts or DIY manuals on how to fix its products.

Successful implementation of the Right to Repair

(I) United States

• In his executive order to promote economic competition, President Biden called to force tech companies to allow consumers to fix their own electronic devices — either themselves or using a technician of their choice.
• He specifically called out cell phone and tractor manufacturers in the White House’s fact sheet.
• With this, some believe manufacturers of electronic devices may even start making their products more durable and long lasting.

(II) Europe

• Earlier this month, the UK government introduced right-to-repair rules with the aim of extending the lifespan of products by up to 10 years.
• Manufacturers of products like washing machines, TVs and refrigerators are required to make spare parts available to people purchasing electrical appliances.
• The new legislation gives manufacturers a two-year window to make the necessary changes to abide by the new legislation.

Right to Repair in India

The ‘right to repair’ is not recognised as a statutory right in India, but certain pronouncements within the antitrust landscape have tacitly recognized the right.

• Necessary consumer right: Monopoly on repair processes infringes the customer’s’ “right to choose” recognised by the Consumer Protection Act, 2019.
• Acknowledgement by agencies: Consumer disputes jurisprudence in the country has also partially acknowledged the right to repair.
• Upholding Competition: In Shamsher Kataria v Honda Siel Cars India Ltd (2017), for instance, the Competition Commission of India ruled that restricting the access of independent automobile repair units to spare parts as anti-competitive.
• Part of consumer welfare: The CCI observed that the practice was detrimental to consumer welfare.
• Laws for recycle: The e-waste (management and handling) rules addresses not only to handle the waste in an environmentally friendly manner, but also has laid down rules about its transportation, storage and recycling.

These regulations have had little impact and a strict law is needed for proper implementation.

Way forward

• If people want to fix things in a timely, safe and cost-effective way, whether by doing it themselves or taking it to a service centre of their choice, providing access to spare parts and information is imperative.
• Well-drafted legislation will not only uphold the right to repair but may aid in striking a much-needed balance between intellectual property and competition laws in the country.

Conclusion

• The Right to Repair is necessarily a battle between the customer and the manufacturer. The right to repair can apply to any industry.
• It’s a win-win situation for consumers if the proposed laws help in ending monopoly and make the repair information available in the public domain.

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10th May, 2022

Educational Commissions

(1) Charles Wood Despatch – 1854

• Objective: Wood’s despatch proposed several recommendations in order to improve the system of education.
• According to the recommendations, it was declared that the aim of the Government’s policy was the promotion of western education. In his despatch, he emphasized on the education of art, science, philosophy and literature of Europe.
• In short, the propagation of European knowledge was the motto of the Wood’s Despatch.
• According to the despatch, for higher education, the chief medium of instruction would be English.
• However, the significance of the vernacular language was no less emphasized as Wood believed that through the mediums of vernacular language, European knowledge could reach to the masses.
• Wood’s Despatch also proposed the setting up of several vernacular primary schools in the villages at the lowest stage.
• Moreover, there should be Anglo-Vernacular high schools and an affiliated college in the district level.
• Wood’s Despatch recommended a system of grants-in-aid to encourage and foster the private enterprise in the field of education.
• The grants-in-aid were conditional on the institution employing qualified teachers and maintaining proper standards of teaching.

(2) Hunter Commission – 1882

• Appointed by: Viceroy Lord Ripon
• Objective: Hunter Education Commission was a landmark commission with objectives to look into the complaints of the non-implementation of the Wood’s Despatch of 1854; the contemporary status of elementary education in the British territories; and suggests means by which this can be extended and improved.
• Headed by: Sir William Wilson Hunter
• He submitted its report in 1882.

Commission suggestions:

1. There should be two types of education arrangements at the high school level, in which emphasis should be given on giving a vocational and business education and other such literary education should be given, which will help in admission to the university.
2. Arrangement for emphasis on the importance of education at the primary level and education in local language and useful subjects.
3. Private efforts should be welcomed in the field of education, but primary education should be given without him.
4. Control of education at the primary level should be handed over to the district and city boards.

(3) Hunter Commission of 1882 on Primary Education:

• Primary education should be regarded as the education of the masses. Education should be able to train the people for self-dependence.
• The medium of instruction in primary education should be the mother tongue. Normal Schools should be established for the training of teachers.
• The curriculum should include useful subjects like agriculture, elements of natural and physical science and the native method of arithmetic and measurement, etc.
• The spread of primary education for the tribal and backward people should be the responsibility of the Government.
• Fees should be an example to students on the basis of their financial difficulties.

(4) Raleigh Commission – 1902

• Appointed under: Raleigh Commission was appointed under the presidency of Sir Thomas Raleigh on 27 January 1902.
• Objective: To inquire into the condition and prospects of universities in India and to recommend proposals for improving their constitution and working.
• Evidently, the Commission was precluded from reporting on primary or secondary education.
• As a result of the report of the recommendations of the Commission the Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904.
• The main objective of the Act: to improve the condition of education in India and upgrade the system to a better level

Important changes introduced for the upliftment of University Education:

1. Universities were empowered to appoint their own staff including the teaching staff.
2. The number of Fellows of a University was limited within 50 to 100.
3. The number of elected Fellows was fixed at 20 for the Bombay, Madras and Calcutta Universities and 15 for others.
4. The Governor-General was now empowered to decide a University’s territorial limits and also affiliation between the universities and colleges.
5. After the implementation of the provisions of the University Act, though the number of colleges declined, yet the number of students increased considerably.

Government Resolution on Education Policy (1913)

• In 1906, the progressive state of Baroda introduced compulsory primary education throughout its territories. In its 1913
• Resolution on Education Policy, the government refused to take up the responsibility of compulsory education, but accepted the policy of removal of illiteracy and urged provincial governments to take early steps to provide free elementary education to the poorer and more backward sections.

(5) Sadler Commission – 1917

• In 1917, the Calcutta University Commission (Sadler Commission) was appointed by the Government of India under the Chairmanship of Mr. Michel Sadler, the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds.

Recommendations:

1. All the teaching resources in the city of Calcutta should be organized so that the Calcutta University may become entirely a teaching university.
2. A separate teaching and residential university should be established at Dacca.
3. There was a need for a coordinating agency. Hence an inter-University Board should be set up.
4. Honors courses should be instituted and they should be distinctly different from the Pass courses.
5. Full time and salaried Vice-Chancellor should be appointed to be the administrative head of the university.
6. The Senate and the syndicate should be replaced by the Court and the Executive Council respectively.
7. Universities should be freed from excessive official control.
8. Government interference in the academic matters of universities should stop.

(6) Hartog Commission – 1929

• Sir Philip Joseph Hartog committee was appointed by the British Indian government to survey on the growth of education in India.
• The Hartog committee (1929), had devoted more attention to mass education than the secondary and University education.
• The Hartog committee highlighted the problem of wastage and stagnation in education at the primary level.
• It recommended the policy of consolidation instead of multiplication of schools. The duration of the primary course was to be fixed to four years.
• It recommended for the improvements in quality, pay, and service conditions of teachers and relating the syllabus and teaching methods to the local environment of villages and locality
• The Hartog committee on education recommended for the promotion of technical and commercial education by universities to control the problem of unemployment.
• The recommendation of the Hartog committee of 1929 was an attempt for consolidation and stabilization of education. The Hartog committee of 1929 was seen as a torchbearer of the government’s effort to improve the quality of education.
• However, these recommendations of Hartog committee of 1929 remained only on paper and could not be implemented due to the great economic depression of 1930-31.

(7) Sargent Plan – 1944

• The Sargent plan of education came after Sir John Sargent was given the task to prepare a comprehensive scheme of education for India in 1944.

Recommendations:

1. Pre-primary education for children between 3 to 6 years of age. Universal, compulsory and free primary or basic education for all children between the ages 6—11 (junior basic) and 11—14 (senior basic).
2. High school education for six years for selected children between the years 11—17.
3. Degree course for three years beginning after the higher secondary examination for selected students
4. Technical, commercial, agricultural and art education for full time and part-time students, girls schools are to teach domestic science.
5. The liquidation of adult illiteracy and the development of a public library system in about 20 years.
6. Full provision for the proper training of teachers.
7. Educational provision is made for the physically and mentally handicapped children.
8. The organization of compulsory physical education.
9. Provision to be made for social and recreational activities.
10. The creation of employment bureaus.
11. The creation of the Department of Education in the centre and in the states.
12. The use of mother tongue is to be used as the medium of instruction in all high schools.

Famine Commissions during British Rule in India

(1) Campbell Commission

• In 1865-66, a famine engulfed Orissa, Bengal, Bihar, and Madras and took a toll of nearly 20 lakhs of lives with Orissa alone loosing 10 lakh lives, since the famine was most severe in Orissa; it is called the Orissa famine.
• The Government officers though forewarned took no steps to meet the calamity.
• The Government adhered to the principles of free trade and the law of demand and supply, the Government did provide employment to the table booked men leaving the work of charitable relief to the voluntary agency.
• But the famine proved a turning point in the history of Indian famines for it was followed by the appointment of a committee under the chairmanship of Sir George Campbell.

(2) Stratchy Commission

• It was set up in 1878 under the Chairmanship of Sir Richard Strachey.
• The commission recommended state interference in food trade in the event of famine. India witnessed another major famine in 1896-97.

(3) Lyall Commission

• It was constituted in 1897 under the Chairmanship of Sir James Lyall. This commission recommended the development of irrigation facilities.

(4) MacDonnell Commission

• It was set up in 1900 under the Chairmanship of Sir Anthony (Later Lord) McDonnel to re-evaluate and recommend changes in report of the previous commission, based on the findings of the recent famine.
• This Commission recommended that the official machinery dealing with a famine must work around the year so that the scarcity of food grains could be controlled well in time.

Law Commission

• Law Commissions in India have a pre-independence origin. The first Law Commission was formed in 1834 as a result of the Charter Act, 1833 under the chairmanship of TB Macaulay.
• The first commission’s recommendations resulted in the codification of the penal code and the Criminal Procedure Code.
• Three other law commissions were constituted before independence by the British government.
• All four pre-independent law commissions have contributed to the statute books immensely.
• After independence, the first Law Commission was constituted in 1955 in a continuance of the tradition of bringing law reforms in the country through the medium of law commissions.
• Second Pre-Independence Law Commission,1853 – Sir John Romilly.
• Third Pre-Independence Law Commission, 1862- Sir John Romilly.
• Fourth Pre-Independence Law Commission, 1879 – Dr Whitley Stokes.

Currency Commission

(1) Mansfield Commission by Dufferin in 1886

• The Indian Currency Committee or Fowler Committee was a government committee appointed by the British-run Government of India on 29 April 1898 to examine the current situation in India.
• Until 1892, silver was the metal on which Indian currency and coinage had largely been based. In 1892, the Government of India announced its intent to “close Indian mints to silver” and, in 1893, it brought this policy into force.

Other Commissions on Currency:

1. Fowler Commission by Elgin II in 1898
2. Babington Smith Commission by Chelmsford in 1919
3. Hilton Young Commission by Linlithgow in 1926

Other Important Commissions

1. Scott-Moncrieff Commission (Irrigation) by Curzon in 1901
2. Fraser Commission (Police Reforms) by Curzon in 1902
3. Hunter Commission (Punjab Disturbances) by Chelmsford 1919
4. Butler Commission (Indian States relation with British Crown) by Irwin in 1927
5. Whiteley Commission (Labour) by Irwin in 1929
6. Sapru Commission (Unemployment) by Linlithgow in 1935
7. Chalfield Commission (Army) by Linlighgow 1939
8. Floud Commission (Tenancy in Bengal) by Linlighgow in 1940

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