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Subject: History

  • Art in news: Tholpavakkoothu

    A shadow leather puppet in Kerala’s famous temple art Tholpavakkoothu is being animated by a robot in Palakkad.

    Tholpavakkoothu

    • Tholpavakkoothu or shadow puppetry is a temple art form which is prevalent in the Bhagavathy temples (mother Goddess) in Palakkad district and nearby regions in Kerala.
    • Tholppava (Thol means leather, Pava means puppet) are moved with the help of strings, and their shadows are depicted on a screen with the help of a row of oil lamps in the background.
    • The story of Tholpavakkoothu performance is from the Indian epic, Ramayana.
    • In the olden days, it was performed elaborately over a period of forty-one days.
    • The narrative used for the performance is a mixture of prose and poetry called Adalpattu.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.With reference to Manipuri Sankirtana, consider the following statements:

    1. It is a song and dance performance.
    2. Cymbals are the only musical instruments used in the performance.
    3. It is performed to narrate the life and deeds of Lord Krishna.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3.

    (b) 1 and 3 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1 only

    Setup of the art

    • Tholppavas are made of the skin of deer and the puppet forms are made by making small holes in the leather that is then attached vertically to a bamboo stick.
    • Accompanying instruments include Ezhupara, Chenda and Maddalam.
    • The artists have to undergo several years of rigorous training to master this art form.
    • The puppetry is staged on a special structure in temple premises called Koothumadam.

  • [pib] Monpa Handmade Paper of Tawang

    PC: East Mojo

    The sale of the 1000-years old heritage Monpa handmade paper or “Mon Shugu” is quickly catching pace after a special mention by PM in his Mann ki Baat.

    Monpa Handmade Paper

    • Monpa paper is made from the bark of tree Shugu Sheng grown locally in Tawang and is identified by its distinctive translucent fibrous texture.
    • The paper is weightless but its natural fibres add great tensile strength to this paper making it apt for various artworks.
    • It has been used for writing Buddhist scriptures, manuscripts and for making prayer flags.
    • Writing on this paper is also known to be tamper-proof.

    Note: This paper is yet to be awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) tag.

    Revitalized by KVIC

    • Khadi and Village Industries Commission, which revived this ancient art at Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh on 25th December 2020.
    • It has made Monpa Handmade paper available online through its e-portal.
    • The revival of this art assumes significance as Monpa Handmade paper was once produced in every household in Tawang and the paper was exported to many countries like Tibet, Bhutan, Myanmar and Japan among others.
    • However, with the new technologies coming in, the handmade paper industry almost disappeared in the last 100 years.

  • [pib] Centenary of ‘Chauri Chaura’ Incident

    PM will inaugurate the centenary Celebrations at Chauri Chaura at Gorakhpur Dist. Uttar Pradesh.

    ‘Chauri Chaura’ Incident

    • The incident took place on 4 February 1922 at Chauri Chaura in the Gorakhpur district of the United Province.
    • A large group of protesters participating in the Non-Cooperation Movement clashed with police who opened fire.
    • In retaliation the demonstrators attacked and set fire to a police station, killing all of its occupants.
    • The incident led to the death of three civilians and 22 policemen.
    • Mahatma Gandhi, who was strictly against violence, halted the non-co-operation movement on the national level on 12 February 1922, as a direct result of this incident.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.The ‘Swadeshi’ and ‘Boycott’ adopted as methods of struggle for the first time during the

    (a) Agitation against the Partition of Bengal

    (b) Home Rule Movement

    (c) Non-Cooperation Movement

    (d) Visit of the Simon Commission to India

    Background

    • In the early 1920s, Indians, led by Mahatma Gandhi, were engaged in a nationwide non-cooperation movement.
    • Using non-violent methods of civil disobedience known as Satyagraha, protests were organised by the INC to challenge oppressive regulations such as the Rowlatt Act.

    Course of the incident

    • Two days before the incident, on 2 February 1922, volunteers participating in the Non-cooperation Movement led by a retired Army soldier named Bhagwan Ahir.
    • The protest was planned against high food prices and liquor sale in the marketplace.
    • Several of the leaders were arrested and put in the lock-up at the Chauri Chaura police station.
    • In response to this, a protest against the police was called on 4 February, to be held at the local marketplace.
    • Infuriated by the gunfire into their ranks, the crowd set the chowki ablaze, killing all of the Indian policemen and other staff trapped inside.

    Aftermath

    • Appalled at the outrage, Gandhi went on a five-day fast as penance for what he perceived as his culpability in the bloodshed.
    • In reflection, Gandhi felt that he had acted too hastily in encouraging people to revolt against the British Raj without sufficiently emphasizing the importance of non-violence.
    • On 12 February 1922, the Indian National Congress halted the Non-co-operation Movement on the national level as a direct result of the Chauri Chaura tragedy.

  • Who are the Bargis?

    As the Assembly elections in West Bengal draw closer, the ‘insider-outsider’ theme has grown to become one of the topics of political debate. Bengali politicians have been terming outsider campaigners as ‘bargis’.

    Bargis: Etymology of the term

    • The term ‘Bargi’is of special significance in Bengal’s history.
    • It is a reference to the several Maratha invasions of West Bengal between 1741 and 1751, which resulted in looting, plundering and massacres of what was then Mughal territory.
    • The happenings of this specific period have affected Bengal’s consciousness so much that they have an established presence in Bengali folklore and literature.
    • Today this term is used as a casual reference to troublesome outsider forces.

    Who were the bargis?

    • Simply speaking, the word bargi referred to cavalrymen in Maratha and Mughal armies.
    • The word comes from the Persian “bargir”, literally meaning “burden taker”, notes historian Surendra Nath Sen in his 1928 work The Military System Of The Marathas.
    • But in the Mughal and Maratha armies, the term signified a soldier who rode a horse furnished by his employer.
    • In the Maratha cavalry, any able-bodied person could enlist as a bargir, unless he had the means to buy a horse and military outfit.
    • Both the bargirs and silhedars were under the overall control of the Sarnobat (Persian for “Sar-i-Naubat”, or Commander in Chief).

    Why did the Marathas raid Bengal?

    • Maratha incursions into the Mughal province of Bengal (which included the regions of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa) between 1741 and 1751 came at a time of intense political uncertainty of then Mughal India.
    • At the Maratha capital in Satara, Chhatrapati Shahu was trying in vain to resolve the differences between his two top power centres– the Peshwa dynasty of Pune and Raghoji I Bhonsale of Nagpur.
    • As the Mughal Empire was crumbling by the 18th century, the two Maratha chieftains were scrambling to secure taxation rights in its far-flung regions, and violently disagreed over their spheres of influence.
    • In Bengal – a Mughal Subah (subdivision) during this era– Nawab Subahdar Sarfaraz Khan had been overthrown by his deputy Alivardi Khan.

    Try this PYQ:

    What was the immediate cause for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade and fight the Third Battle of Panipat:

    (a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore

    (b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg khan invited him to invade Punjab

    (c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujrat Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)

    (d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab upto borders of Delhi to his kingdom

    Stir within the Maratha empire

    • After Khan’s inauguration, the provincial governor of Orissa, Zafar Khan Rustam Jung, more commonly known as Murshid Quli II, rebelled against the usurper.
    • The revolt failed, and Jung enlisted Raghoji’s help to oust Khan.
    • Raghoji was also motivated by internal politics within the Maratha camp, fearful as he was of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao, also known as of Nana Saheb who trying to establish his claim over Bengal first at this time of political disturbance in the province.

    Maratha invasions of Bengal

    • The Marathas first entered the Mughal province in August 1741, when Raghoji’s infantry troops accompanied Mirza Baqar Ali, the son-in-law of Jung, to conquer Orissa.
    • In 1743, the Bengal province faced the wrath of two Maratha armies – both, as it happened, at loggerheads with each other.
    • The Peshwa forces proceeded further, committing all sorts of atrocities on the way in a land which they had ostensibly come to protect.
    • Raghoji’s armies were also doing the same, but at least he had openly arrived as an invader.

    Ousting the ‘local’ invaders

    • Finally, in 1751, after remaining encamped in western Bengal for a significant amount of time, the Marathas reached an agreement with Alivardi Khan.
    • The Nawab promised an annual tribute of 12 lakh rupees and the cession of Orissa to the Marathas. In return, the Bhonsales gave word to not return to Bengal.

    Damage caused

    • Ten years of Maratha invasions had crippled Bengal’s economy.
    • The Dutch believed that 400,000 people had been killed. Losses of weavers, silk winders and those who cultivated mulberry were particularly high.
    • Historian P J Marshall noted that people were so distressed that they would take flight even on imaginary alarms, and wander around.

  • Symbolic significance of the Red Fort and Delhi

    Newsfeeds on Republic Day were dominated by scenes of protests on the ramparts of the Red Fort.

    Mob stormed and vandalized the national flag and the mast of Red Fort in guise of peaceful farmers protest! What did this act signify?

     

    To unravel some of these strands of meaning, one must go back in history, to a time centuries before the Red Fort was even constructed.

    The History of Capital

    • Before the 13th century, Delhi — or ‘Dilli’ — was, politically speaking, a moderately significant town.
    • It was for long the capital of the modestly sized kingdom of the Rajput Tomar dynasty.
    • By the mid 12th century it was conquered by the Rajput Chauhans who, however, ruled from Ajmer.
    • It was the conquest by Ghurid Turks in the late 12th century that put Delhi on the map as a centre of power.
    • As the capital of the Sultanate, Delhi gradually developed an aura of power — in the popular imagination, it came to be associated with a dominant power in the subcontinent.
    • Babur, having defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526, headed for Delhi, which he described as “the capital of all Hindustan”, even though the Lodis had ruled from Agra for the previous two decades.

    Sultanate period

    • There was another important feature of the Delhi of these two centuries.
    • From the 13th century, the capital had been located at a number of different sites – Mehrauli, Kilugarhi, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Firozabad, and Dinpanah.
    • Now it came to be settled permanently in Shahjahanabad, with the emperor’s seat being in the Red Fort.

    Seat of the Mughal power

    • During the first century or so of Mughal rule, Agra was the capital for longer than Delhi.
    • Still, the Mughals continued to be seen as rulers of Delhi.
    • A Sanskrit inscription from 1607 refers to Akbar as “Dillishvara”, the lord of Delhi, though he had ruled from Delhi for a very short time.
    • In a Persian inscription dated 1621 on the Salimgarh Bridge adjoining the Red Fort, Jahangir, who never reigned from Delhi, was described as “Shahanshah e Dehli”, the emperor of Delhi.

    Construction of Red Fort

    • It was only in the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-58) that the Mughal connection to Delhi was given concrete form, with the founding of the city of Shahjahanabad and the inauguration of its palace citadel, the Red Fort, in 1648.
    • From that date to the end of Mughal rule in 1857, Delhi would be the formal capital of the Mughal Empire.

    Fading centre

    • The significance of Delhi and the Red Fort was thrown into sharp relief by political developments in the 18th century, once the Mughal Empire started on the long road to decline.
    • Erstwhile Mughal provinces such as Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad broke away, and new forces like the Sikhs and the Marathas arose.
    • Not only did the Mughal territories shrink, but the Mughal emperor also became increasingly ineffectual even within them.

    A takeover by the East India Company

    • The control over the emperor and of Delhi was, therefore, a prize worth fighting for.
    • Safdar Jang, the Nawab of Awadh, fought a civil war in an attempt to keep his position as PM of the Mughal emperor.
    • The Sikhs had their ambitions and came up to the walls of the city in 1783 before retreating.
    • The Marathas met with greater success the following year when Mahadji Sindhia became the power behind the throne.
    • Finally, the East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in 1803 and went on to control Delhi and the emperor for the next 54 years.

    Shifting of capital

    • Delhi was officially announced as the capital of British Raj by the then-Emperor George V, on December 12, 1911.
    • The capital was shifted from Calcutta as Delhi was the financial and political seat of many earlier empires and was located closer to the geographical centre of India.
    • The rising nationalist movement in Calcutta was also responsible for the shift.

    Symbolic importance then

    • In the popular imagination, the legitimate rule was associated with the Mughal emperor to the extent that when the country broke out in revolt in 1857, the mutinous soldiers made their way to Delhi, seeking his leadership.
    • When the revolt in Delhi had been crushed, the British army occupied the Red Fort and the officers drank to their Queen’s health in the Diwan-e-Khas, where the Mughal emperors had held court.
    • It was in this same hall that Bahadur Shah was put on trial, convicted, and exiled.
    • Nearly ninety years later, in 1945-46, the memory of that trial foreshadowed another historic trial in the fort.
    • The personnel of the Indian National Army were tried there, which generated an immense wave of nationalist sentiment in the run-up to Independence.

    Symbol of the nation, now

    • With the coming of Independence, it was necessary that the site of the Red Fort, over which the British colonial government had sought to inscribe its power and might, be symbolically reclaimed for the Indian people.
    • It was for this reason, that after the first hoisting of the national flag at India Gate on August 15, 1947, the next day, the PM hoisted it on the ramparts of the Red Fort.
    • This was to then become India’s lasting Independence Day tradition.

  • [pib] 125 Years of Prabuddha Bharata Journal

    PM will address the 125th-anniversary celebrations of ‘Prabuddha Bharata’, a monthly journal of the Ramakrishna Order, started by Swami Vivekananda in 1896.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?

    (a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

    (b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika

    (c) Lokayata and Kapalika

    (d) Sankhya and Yoga

    Prabuddha Bharata

    • The journal ‘Prabuddha Bharata’ has been an important medium for spreading the message of India’s ancient spiritual wisdom.
    • It is India’s longest-running English language journal (wiki).
    • Its publication was started from Chennai (erstwhile Madras), where it continued to be published for two years, after which it was published from Almora.
    • Later, in April 1899, the place of publication of the Journal was shifted to Advaita Ashrama and it has been continuously published from there since then.
    • Some of the greatest personalities have left their imprint on the pages of ‘Prabuddha Bharata’ through their writings on Indian culture, spirituality, philosophy, history, psychology, art, and other social issues.
    • Luminaries like Netaji SC Bose, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sister Nivedita, Sri Aurobindo, Former President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, among others, have contributed to the Journal over the years.

  • Patharughat Uprising of Assam (1894)

    Twenty-five years before the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, more than a hundred peasants fell to the bullets of the British on January 28, 1894, in Patharughat, a small village in Assam’s Darrang district.

    Make a note of all breakthrough peasants’ revolt in the nineteenth century. Also, try this PYQ:

    Q.The demand for the Tebhaga Peasant Movement in Bengal was for-

    (a) The reduction of the share of the landlords from one-half of the crop to one-third

    (b) The grant of ownership of land to peasants as they were the actual cultivators of the land

    (c) The uprooting of Zamindari system and the end of serfdom

    (d) Writing off all peasant debts

    Patharughat uprising

    • After the British annexation of Assam in 1826, surveys of the vast lands of the state began.
    • On the basis of such surveys, the British began to impose land taxes, much to the resentment of the farmers.
    • In 1893, the British government decided to increase agricultural land tax reportedly by 70- 80 per cent.
    • Up until then the peasants would pay taxes in kind or provide service in lieu of cash.
    • Across Assam, peasants began protesting the move by organising Raij Mels, or peaceful peoples’ conventions.

    The day of the massacre

    • The unarmed peasants were protesting against the increase in land revenue levied by the colonial administration when the military opened fire.
    • Despite these gatherings being democratic, the British perceived them as “breeding grounds for sedition”.
    • On January 28, 1894, when the British officers were refusing to listen to the farmers’ grievances, things heated up.
    • There was a lathi charge, followed by an open firing which killed many of the peasants present.
    • Official records, as mentioned in the Darrang District Gazette, 1905, edited by BC Allen, placed the casualties in the Patharughat incident as 15 killed and 37 wounded.

    Why was the incident significant?

    • The incident was one of the most tragic and inspiring episodes in the saga of the Indian freedom movement.
    • However, it rarely features in the mainstream historical discourse of the freedom struggle.
    • For the larger Assamese community, Patharughat comes second only to the Battle of Saraighat, when the Ahoms defeated the Mughals in 1671.

  • Expedition to Ram Setu

    In possibly a first, Indian scientists will undertake a scientific expedition to date the chain of corals and sediments forming the Ram Setu.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Which of the following have coral reefs?

    1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
    2. Gulf of Kachchh
    3. Gulf of Mannar
    4. Sunderbans

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only

    (b) 2 and 4 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Ram Setu

    • Also known as Adam’s bridge, Ram Setu is a 48-km long bridge-like structure between India and Sri Lanka.
    • It finds mention in the Ramayana but little about its formation is known or proven, scientifically.

    What is the underwater archaeological project at Ram Setu?

    • The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) will undertake a three-year scientific project.
    • The idea is to see whether Ram Setu is a man-made structure or not.
    • The most important aspect of the project is to establish its age, scientifically.
    • The explorers will apply a number of scientific techniques while attempting to date the Ram Setu, study its material composition, outline the sub-surface structure along with attempting to excavate remnants or artefacts, if any, from the site.
    • Once it is known, the information can be verified and co-related with its mention in the Ramayana and similar scriptures.

    How is the project planned?

    • An initial survey will make use of underwater photographs to check if any habitation remains inundated in the area. A geophysical survey will be performed to understand the structure.
    • Over the years, several kinds of depositions, including sand, have covered the actual structure. Initially, only physical observation, and no drilling, will be done.
    • NIO operates two oceanographic vessels – RV Sindhu Sankalp (ability to go up to and remain 56 metres underwater) and RV Sindhu Sadhana (ability to go up to and remain 80 metres underwater).
    • For collecting core samples at greater depths and for bathymetry purposes, Sindhu Sadhana will be deployed for the Ram Setu project.

    Two of the planned tests:

    1. Side-scan SONAR — Will provide bathymetry which is similar to studying the topography of a structure on land. Soundwaves signals will be sent to the structure which will provide an outline of the physical structure of the Ram Setu.
    2. Silo seismic survey – Mild earthquake-like tremor shocks will be sent at shallow depths close to the structure. These energized shockwaves are capable of penetrating into the structure. The reflected or refracted signals will be captured by instruments that will provide sub-surface structure.

    Significance of such exploration

    • India has a vast coastline of over 7,500 kilometres.
    • Oceans are a treasure trove of the past records — climate, evolutionary changes of the underwater fauna, coastal lives, habitations, settlements and civilizations.
    • Of these, the sea-level changes remain the most significant of all with respect to climate studies.
    • History has records of sailors who set out on unknown voyages to later discover new lands and islands.
    • They ventured into deep seas even before the advent of the Global Positioning System (GPS).
    • Using such underwater exploration studies, scientists say that it is possible to trace numerous ship-wreckages and remains from the past.
    • Studies of ship wreckage, artefacts or remains could reveal a lot of information.

    Recently a 60000 YO submerged forest was explored off the Alabama coast in the USA.

    Has India undertaken underwater archaeological explorations?

    • A part of Dwarka, along with coastal Gujarat, is underwater, confirming the sea-level rise.
    • The NIO has been studying this site, and so far, traced large amounts of scattered stones which were retrieved at the depth between three to six metres beneath.
    • Stone anchors, too, were found at the site, suggesting it to be part of an ancient harbour.
    • In the past, NIO had initiated studies to trace the missing shore temples of Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu.
    • Presently, several ship wreckage studies, including the one-off the Odisha coast, are going on.

  • What is a Tripuri Risa?

    Tripura CM has of late made a statement to sport the Risa, a customary hand-woven cloth used by Tripura’s indigenous tribal communities.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Consider the following pairs:

    Sr. Tradition State
    1. Chapchar Kut festival : Mizoram
    2. Khongjom Parba ballad : Manipur
    3. Thang-Ta dance : Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct? (CSP 2018)

    a) 1 only

    b) 1 and 2

    c) 3 only

    d) 2 and 3

    What is Risa?

    • Risa is one of the three parts of customary Tripuri female attire, the other two being the Rignai and Rikutu.
    • The Risa, which is essentially a customary hand-woven cloth, is used as headgear, stole, female upper cloth or presented to honour a distinguished recipient.
    • The Rignai is primarily used to cover the lower part of the body and literally translates into ‘to wear’. The Rituku covers the upper half of the body, wrapping it all around.
    • However, it is also used as a ‘chunri’ or a ‘pallu’ of the Indian saree. It is also used to cover the head of newly married Tripuri women.

    Its cultural significance

    • Apart from its beautiful designs, the Risa plays a host of crucial social utilities.
    • Adolescent Tripuri girls are first given Risa to wear when she reaches 12-14 years in an event called Risa Sormani.
    • The event involves prayers to a Lampra god, where her elder women pray for her wellbeing throughout her life.
    • However, it is also used in religious festivals like the Garia Puja, a customary festival of the tribal communities, or as a head turban by male folks during weddings and festivals, as a cummerbund over dhoti or headscarf.
    • The cloth is even used as a makeshift baby carrier on the mother’s back.

  • Celebration of Parakram Diwas

    The Union Culture Ministry has announced that January 23, birth anniversary of Subhash Chandra Bose, would be celebrated as “Parakram Diwas” — the day of courage — every year.

    Try this PYQ

    Q.Highlight the difference in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for freedom. (150 W)

    Subhash Chandra Bose (1897-1945)

    • Bose was an Indian revolutionary prominent in the independence movement against British rule of India.
    • He also led an Indian national force from abroad against the Western powers during World War II.
    • He was a contemporary of Mohandas K. Gandhi, at times an ally and at other times an adversary.
    • He was highly influenced by a socialist ideology that acquired popularity as consequences of the Russian Revolution.

    Forget not that the grossest crime is to compromise with injustice and wrong. Remember the eternal law: You must give if you want to get.

    – Netaji

    Association with INC

    • In 1927, after being released from prison, Bose became general secretary of the Congress and worked with Jawaharlal Nehru for independence.
    • In late December 1928, Bose organised the Annual Meeting of the Indian National Congress (INC) in Calcutta.
    • Subsequently, Bose wanted to get elected as Congress President in a subsequent session of 1939 convened at Tripuri.
    • However, his candidature was challenged by Mahatma Gandhi who wanted to prevent socialist orientation to the Indian National Movement.
    • Gandhi proposed Pattabhi Sitaramaya for this candidature.
    • In this election, Bose emerged victorious by a huge margin which was not acceptable to Mahatma Gandhi.
    • Congress leader supported Mahatma Gandhi and forced Subhash Chandra Bose to step down from Presidentship.
    • Under such collective pressure, Bose not only resigned from the Congress members. Thereafter he established a separate political party known as “Forward Bloc”.

    Escape to Germany

    • On the outbreak of WW-II, Bose advocated a campaign of mass civil disobedience to protest against Linlithgow’s decision to declare war on India’s behalf without consulting the Congress leadership.
    • Having failed to persuade Gandhi of the necessity of this, he was house arrested from where he escaped to Germany.
    • He then went to several countries of Europe and finally landed in a region of Singapore in “South East Asia”.

    Azad Hind Fauj

    • The SE Asia region was under the control of Japan where a large number of “Indian Prisoners of War” was confined.
    • When Subhash Chandra Bose reached Singapore in1943 this army was led by a prominent revolutionary Ras Behari Bose whose cadre was known as “Indian National Army”.
    • Subhash Chandra Bose reorganized and expanded this force in order to liberate India. This force was renamed as “Azad Hind Fauj” by him.

    The Azad Hind Government

    • The Provisional Government of Free India, or, more simply, Free India (Azad Hind), was an Indian provisional government established in occupied Singapore in 1943.
    • C. Bose was the leader of Azad Hind Government (AHG) and also the Head of State of this Provisional Indian Government-in-exile.
    • It was a part of the freedom movement, originating in the 1940s outside India with a purpose of allying with Axis powers to free India from British rule.

    Its collapse and INA Trials

    • INA under the leadership of Bose got defeated severely at Rangoon due to lack of support of Japanese.
    • Bose was suggested to leave Burma to continue his struggle for Indian independence and returned to Singapore before the fall of Rangoon.
    • The AHG govt in the islands collapsed when the island garrisons of Japanese and Indian troops were defeated by British troops and the islands themselves retaken.
    • The Provisional Government of Free India ceased to exist with the deaths of the Axis, the INA, and Bose in 1945.
    • It was followed by the Famous Trials at Red Fort.

    Also read:

    In news: 1946 Royal Indian Navy Mutiny