Why Raigad Fort is Nominated for UNESCO World Heritage?
Historical and Strategic Importance: Raigad Fort served as the capital of the Maratha Empire under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, symbolizing Maratha resilience and independence.
Architectural Excellence: The fort showcases Maratha military architecture, with well-developed structures adapted to the hilly terrain.
Role in Maratha Legacy: As a hill fort, Raigad is emblematic of the Marathas’ unique fortification style, designed to withstand invasions and safeguard autonomy.
Icon of Maratha Heritage: Known as Durgaraj (King of Forts), Raigad stands as a tribute to Shivaji Maharaj’s leadership and legacy and has become a pilgrimage site for Shivbhakts.
Natural Defense and Innovation: The fort’s natural fortifications, steep escarpments, and strategic location atop an isolated hill embody military ingenuity and make it a model of Maratha defense architecture.
History of Raigad Fort:
Details
Location
• Situated in the Sahyadri mountain range in Maharashtra, India.
• Elevation of approximately 2,700 feet above sea level.
• Surrounded by natural cliffs and 1,500-foot escarpments.
Background
• Originally known as Rairi.
• Captured by Shivaji Maharaj in 1653 CE.
• Crowned Chhatrapati on June 6, 1674 CE.
• Served as the capital of the Maratha Empire until 1680 CE.
Significance
• Part of the “Maratha Military Landscapes of India” nomination for UNESCO World Heritage status.
• Referred to as the “Gibraltar of the East” by Grant Duff.
Architectural Highlights
• Includes the Royal Complex with key structures like Ranivasa and Rajsadar.
• Jagadishwar Mandir dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• Samadhi (final resting place) of Shivaji Maharaj located nearby.
Features
• Accessible mainly through Naqqarkhana and Palkhi Darwaja.
• Features well-designed drainage systems and secret chambers.
Ecology
• Surrounded by valleys shaped by the Kal and Gandhari rivers.
• Supported limited agriculture and had a self-sustained ecosystem.
Cultural Significance
• Known as the Durgaraj (King of Forts), symbolizing Shivaji Maharaj’s legacy.
• Hosts annual celebrations for Shivrajyabhishek and Punyatithi.
PYQ:
[2010] What was the immediate reason for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India and fight the Third Battle of Panipat?
(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore
(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg Khan invited him to invade Punjab
(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujarat, Aurangabad, Sialkot & Pasrur)
(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab up to the borders of Delhi to his kingdom
India has been ranked 176th in the Global Nature Conservation Index (NCI) 2024 with a score of 45.5 out of 100, placing it among the five worst performers alongside Kiribati (180), Turkey (179), Iraq (178), and Micronesia (177).
Reasons for India’s Low Ranking:
High Rate of Land Conversion: 53% of India’s land is converted for urban, industrial, and agricultural purposes, contributing to deforestation and habitat fragmentation that severely impact biodiversity.
Soil Pollution: India’s sustainable nitrogen index is 0.77, indicating high levels of soil pollution primarily due to extensive pesticide use, threatening soil health and agricultural sustainability.
Minimal Marine Conservation: Only 0.2% of India’s national waterways are protected, with no protected areas in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), highlighting limited efforts in marine biodiversity conservation.
Illegal Wildlife Trade: India ranks as the fourth-largest illegal wildlife trader globally, with an estimated annual trade value of £15 billion, putting added pressure on vulnerable wildlife species.
About the Nature Conservation Index (NCI):
Details
Developed By
Goldman Sonnenfeldt School of Sustainability and Climate Change at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.
Purpose
To assess each country’s progress in balancing conservation and development through data-driven analysis.
Aim
To help governments, researchers, and organizations identify concerns and enhance conservation policies for long-term biodiversity protection.
Launch Date
Launched on October 24, 2024.
Scope
Ranks 180 countries based on their conservation efforts.
Pillars of the Index
• Managing Protected Areas
• Addressing Threats Against Biodiversity
• Nature and Conservation Governance
• Future Trends in Natural Resource Management
Significance
Provides insights into conservation policies and practices, aiding in the global effort to protect biodiversity and promote sustainable development.
Key highlights of the reports:
Finland, Norway, Switzerland, Costa Rica, and New Zealand ranked highest, showing strong conservation practices and governance.
Nations with advanced climate adaptation policies (e.g., Sweden and Denmark) are better positioned to mitigate biodiversity risks from climate change.
Despite Protected Areas, 46.9% of terrestrial and 67.5% of marine species are in decline worldwide.
High-density nations such as Bangladesh and the Netherlands face intense biodiversity pressures, driving them to implement urban greening and sustainable practices.
PYQ:
[2018] “Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by:
Q) Why is Public Private Partnership (PPP) required in infrastructural projects? Examine the role of PPP model in the redevelopment of Railway Stations in India. (UPSC CSE 2022)
Q) Examine the development of Airports in India through joint ventures under Public – Private Partnership (PPP) model. What are the challenges faced by the authorities in this regard. (UPSC CSE 2017)
Q) Adoption of PPP model for infrastructure development of the country has not been free of criticism. Critically discuss the pros and cons of the model. (UPSC CSE 2013)
Mentor’s Comment: The Indian government, through NITI Aayog, is developing an incentive scheme tailored for private bus operators, who currently account for about 90% of the bus fleet in India. This move is crucial for achieving the target of 40% e-bus penetration by 2030 and reaching carbon neutrality by 2070.
Despite existing support under the FAME-II scheme, which primarily benefits state transport undertakings (STUs), the high costs associated with e-buses deter private operators from making the switch. The forthcoming incentive scheme is seen as a potential game-changer that could facilitate the broader adoption of electric buses in public transportation.
Today’s editorial discusses the role of the private sector in India’s electric bus (e-bus) initiative. Today’s discussions will focus more on creating a supportive environment for e-bus deployment beyond state-run services.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Despite the government’s push through schemes like FAME II and PM e-Bus Sewa, which have incentivized electric vehicles for public transport, private bus operators have seen little benefit.
Presently, the government is planning to introduce a new incentive scheme specifically aimed at encouraging private operators to invest in e-buses.
Challenges Faced by Private Operators:
• Lack of Financial Incentives: Current government schemes do not extend to private operators, making it difficult for them to invest in e-buses. • High Initial Costs: The substantial upfront investment required for electric buses is prohibitive for many small operators. • Charging Infrastructure: Limited access to charging stations and facilities further complicates the adoption of e-buses. Most charging infrastructure is designed for state-run units, leaving private operators without adequate support. • Operational Inefficiencies: Restrictions on parking and charging at government depots create logistical challenges for private bus operations.
How can the private sector be incentivized to participate in the e-bus market?
1) Financial Incentives: The incentivized schemes and subsidies could significantly lower the upfront costs associated with e-bus acquisition, which can be up to five times that of diesel buses.
Offering viability gap funding for charging infrastructure and land leases could attract private investment.
Implementing a payment security mechanism can protect private operators against payment delays from state transport undertakings (STUs).
2) Infrastructure Development: Establishing a robust network of charging stations is crucial. Under the Gross Cost Contract (GCC) Model, STUs pay a fixed cost per kilometer, ensuring steady income for operators while minimizing their risk exposure without bearing the full financial burden upfront.
This Flexible Leasing model enables operators to access capital without high initial investments, as maintenance and operational responsibilities can be shared.
What role does financing play in the adoption of electric buses?
High Initial Costs: The upfront costs of e-buses are significantly higher than those of traditional diesel buses, often up to five times more expensive, operators may find it challenging to justify the investment in e-buses despite their long-term operational savings.
Need for Dedicated Financing Facilities: Establishing a dedicated e-bus financing facility could provide concessional loans and grants, helping shield manufacturers and operators from the payment security risks posed by financially struggling state road transport undertakings (SRTUs).
Interest Rate Subventions: To encourage private operators to invest in e-buses, interest rate subventions of 4-6% on loans can be implemented. Lower interest rates can significantly ease the financial burden during the repayment period, making financing more accessible.
Leasing Models: Financing institutions can offer leasing options that include maintenance and battery replacement, thus sharing operational risks with bus operators. This approach not only lowers upfront costs but also allows operators to manage cash flow more effectively.
What infrastructure improvements are necessary for successful e-bus deployment?
Installation of Charging Stations: Establishing charging points within bus depots is crucial. A widespread infrastructure network will alleviate concerns about range and downtime, making e-buses a more viable option for operators.
Depot Charging Facilities: Private operators currently face restrictions in accessing government bus depots for parking and charging. Granting them access would streamline operations and improve efficiency by reducing the distance drivers must travel to pick up their buses.
Power Supply Management: The increased demand for electricity from charging e-buses can strain local power grids. Therefore, collaboration between bus operators and electricity distribution companies (DISCOMs) is vital for planning and managing this demand effectively.
Pilot Projects: Implementing pilot projects in tier-2 and tier-3 cities can help assess infrastructure requirements and operational challenges before scaling up to larger urban areas.
For example, electrifying a specific route, such as Delhi-Mumbai, could provide valuable insights into the necessary specifications for e-bus deployment.
Conclusion: The future of India’s e-bus initiative depends on a united effort between government bodies and private stakeholders to create an inclusive framework that fosters growth and innovation in the electric mobility sector.
India’s Anusandhan National Research Foundation and the BioE3 policy promote academia-industry collaboration, driving the bioeconomy for economic growth, sustainability, and climate action commitment.
What is BioE3 policy?
The BioE3 policy aims to transform chemical industries into sustainable bio-based models, promoting biotechnology to drive economic growth, protect the environment, and create jobs, supporting India’s sustainable development and climate goals.
Primary Environmental impacts associated with FMCG production and consumption:
Resource Depletion: The production of FMCGs often requires significant natural resources, such as water, energy, and raw materials. For example, palm oil, widely used in food and personal care products, leads to deforestation when forests are cleared for plantations.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The manufacturing and distribution of FMCGs contribute to greenhouse gas emissions at multiple stages, from sourcing raw materials to production processes and transportation.
Waste Generation: FMCGs, especially those with single-use packaging (e.g., plastics), generate a considerable amount of waste, which ends up in landfills or the ocean, causing environmental pollution.
Water Pollution: The production and use of FMCGs, such as soaps, detergents, and other chemicals, can lead to water pollution through the discharge of untreated wastewater containing harmful substances.
Loss of Biodiversity: The agricultural practices used to source raw materials like palm oil can lead to habitat destruction, thereby threatening biodiversity. Monoculture farming and deforestation disrupt ecosystems and endanger wildlife.
How can FMCG companies implement sustainable practices across their supply chains?
Companies should adopt responsible sourcing policies, such as using certified sustainable palm oil and other raw materials that adhere to ‘No Deforestation, No Peat’ policies.
Implementing energy-efficient processes, switching to renewable energy sources, and optimizing logistics to reduce emissions can minimize the carbon footprint across the supply chain.
Emphasizing recycling, reusing materials, and developing biodegradable or compostable packaging can help reduce waste and resource depletion.
The integration of bio-based or synthetic alternatives to traditional materials can also be beneficial.
Companies should implement measures to reduce water usage in manufacturing and treat wastewater to prevent water pollution.
Working with smallholder farmers to implement regenerative agricultural practices can help restore soil health, improve biodiversity, and support sustainable livelihoods.
What metrics should be used to measure the effectiveness of sustainability initiatives in FMCGs?
Carbon Footprint Reduction: Tracking greenhouse gas emissions across the supply chain and setting targets for reducing Scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions.
Sustainable Sourcing Percentage: Measuring the proportion of raw materials sourced sustainably, such as certified palm oil or recycled materials.
Waste Reduction and Recycling Rates: Monitoring the volume of waste generated, the amount sent to landfills, and the recycling rate of packaging materials.
Water Usage and Pollution Levels: Tracking water consumption in production and measuring the quality of wastewater discharged to ensure compliance with environmental standards.
Biodiversity Impact: Assessing the effect of sourcing practices on ecosystems and tracking initiatives to protect or restore biodiversity.
Product Sustainability Index: Developing a sustainability index for products that takes into account their entire life cycle, from raw material extraction to end-of-life disposal.
Way forward:
Strengthen Collaboration and Innovation: Foster partnerships between academia, industry, and government to drive research and development of sustainable alternatives to traditional materials, such as palm oil, and implement innovative practices throughout the FMCG supply chain.
Implement Comprehensive Sustainability Frameworks: Establish regulatory frameworks that incentivize sustainable practices, including mandatory reporting on sustainability metrics, eco-labelling for products, and support for circular economy initiatives to minimize waste and resource depletion.
The Supreme Court ruled that Aadhaar cards cannot be accepted as proof of age, as other official documents like the School Leaving Certificate are more appropriate for this purpose.
What are the legal implications of the SC’s ruling on Aadhaar as proof of date of birth?
The ruling reinforces the legal stance that Aadhaar is primarily intended for identity verification rather than as a document for verifying age or date of birth. This aligns with the previous Supreme Court judgment in 2018, which defined Aadhaar as “proof of identity” rather than proof of age or residence.
By citing the Juvenile Justice Act and previous HC judgments, the SC emphasized that statutory provisions and established legal precedents should guide the determination of age.
This consistency ensures that legal processes are not diluted by using documents like Aadhaar, which lack stringent verification for date of birth.
The ruling adheres to UIDAI’s own circular, which states that Aadhaar is not intended to serve as proof of date of birth. This reduces potential misuse or misinterpretation of the Aadhaar card’s scope and usage.
How will this decision impact individuals and agencies that utilize Aadhaar for identity verification?
Impact on Identity Verification Practices: While Aadhaar remains a valid document for identity verification, organizations and institutions will need to reassess the supporting documents they accept for age-related verification.
For instance, banks, insurance companies, and government agencies may need to request additional documents when the date of birth is a critical factor.
Review of Policies in Government Schemes: Agencies implementing government schemes may need to revise their processes to comply with this ruling, ensuring that alternative documents are requested for verifying age-related eligibility.
Impact on Legal and Compensation Cases: In cases where age is a factor in calculating benefits, legal entities must rely on more reliable documents, such as birth certificates or school records, instead of Aadhaar.
What alternative documents can be used for verifying the DoB following this ruling?
School Leaving Certificate/Matriculation Certificate: This is often considered the most reliable document for verifying the age of an individual, as it is issued based on records from the time of schooling.
Birth Certificate: The birth certificate remains the primary document for establishing a person’s date of birth as it is issued by a government authority at the time of birth.
Passport: As an official government document that undergoes strict verification, the passport can serve as valid proof of age.
Government-issued Certificates (e.g., PAN Card): While not always requested for age verification, documents like the PAN card can also be used in some cases where other primary documents are unavailable.
Driver’s License or Voter ID (if Date of Birth is Mentioned): These documents, where the date of birth is explicitly recorded, could be used as supporting evidence for age verification.
Way forward:
Strengthen Guidelines for Acceptable Age Verification Documents: Government agencies, financial institutions, and service providers should clearly outline which documents are accepted for age verification, prioritizing reliable records like birth certificates and school certificates to ensure consistency and compliance.
Enhance Public Awareness on Aadhaar’s Usage Limitations: The government should initiate campaigns to educate citizens about Aadhaar’s limitations as age proof and encourage the use of appropriate documents for age-related matters, reducing confusion and potential legal disputes.
Mains PYQ:
Q Two parallel run schemes of the Government, viz the Adhar card and NPM, one of voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits , discuss whether or not both schemes need run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve development benefits and equitable growth (UPSC IAS/2014)
The recent news highlights how Donald Trump has been leveraging Kamala Harris’s multifaceted identity—being Black, Indian-American, and a woman—to create divisions within the Democratic Party’s diverse coalition.
How does Kamala Harris’s multifaceted identity impact her political positioning?
Diverse Representation: Kamala Harris’s identity as a Black woman of Indian descent allows her to connect with multiple voter demographics, potentially uniting diverse groups under a common political agenda.
Target for Opposition: Her identity also makes her a target for opponents, like Donald Trump, who may attempt to exploit racial and cultural tensions to drive wedges within the Democratic base.
Advocacy for Intersectionality: Harris’s multifaceted identity supports her advocacy for policies that address various forms of discrimination, appealing to progressive voters who value diversity and inclusion.
Supreme Court Ruling on Minority on June 2023:
Violation of Equal Protection: The Supreme Court’s 6-3 ruling declared Harvard and UNC’s (University of North Carolina) race-based admissions unconstitutional, citing violations of the Equal Protection Clause and racial stereotyping.
Minority Representation: The decision is likely to decrease African-American enrollment at top universities while benefiting Asian-American admissions, raising concerns about equity.
The ruling could extend beyond higher education, affecting K-12 schooling and race-related employment practices under Title VII.
K-12 education refers to the comprehensive educational system that spans from kindergarten (K) through 12th grade. This structure is designed to provide a standardized framework for formal education, primarily in the United States, Canada, and several other countries.
What are the implications of the SC’s ruling on affirmative action for Minority Groups?
Shift in Demographics: The Supreme Court’s ruling, which prohibits race-based considerations in college admissions, has resulted in a significant decrease in African-American representation at prestigious universities while benefiting Asian-American admissions.
Heightened Tensions: The ruling exacerbates existing tensions between different minority groups, particularly between African Americans and Asian-Americans, as the latter may perceive an advantage in admissions due to the ruling, creating conflict over perceived equity in opportunities.
Reevaluation of Policies: Minority groups may need to reassess their strategies for achieving representation and equity in educational and professional fields in light of changing admission policies and their implications on access.
How do intersectional conflicts among minority groups manifest in contemporary politics?
Competing Interests: Conflicts arise when minority groups, such as African-Americans and Asian-Americans, have differing views on policies like affirmative action, leading to a fragmented approach to addressing discrimination and inequality.
Political Polarization: Issues like immigration and welfare policies create further divisions, as different groups may align with political parties based on how they perceive their interests are being served or threatened.
Influence on Electoral Dynamics: The intersections of race, ethnicity, and social issues complicate the electoral landscape, as political candidates and parties navigate these dynamics to appeal to various voting blocs, often leading to strategic alignments or divisions within the broader minority coalition.
Conclusion: Kamala Harris’s identity influences U.S. politics, highlighting racial dynamics and intersectional conflicts. The Supreme Court’s affirmative action ruling fuels tensions among minority groups, while the election’s outcome could reshape U.S.-India relations and diaspora engagement policies.
The ‘Rashtriya Ekta Diwas’ (National Unity Day) the birth anniversary of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, will be held on 31st October.
About National Unity Day
National Unity Day is celebrated every year in India on 31 October since 2014.
It marks the birth anniversary of Vallabhbhai Patel who had a major role in the political integration of India.
31 October is also celebrated as Rashtriya Sankalp Diwas or National Pledge Day as it marks the day of assassination of Indira Gandhi.
Contributions made by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel:
Details
Who Was He?
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (31 October 1875 – 15 December 1950) was an Indian independence activist, lawyer, and a prominent leader of the Indian National Congress.
He served as India’s first Deputy PM and Home Minister.
Role in the Freedom Struggle
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Led a non-violent campaign against unjust land revenue tax during a famine.
• Bardoli Satyagraha (1928): Organized protests against increased land revenue, earning the title “Sardar.”
Integration of Princely States
Played a crucial role in integrating over 565 princely states into the Indian Union post-independence using diplomatic skills and firm leadership.
Establishment of All India Services
Advocated for a unified administrative framework, establishing the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), known as India’s “steel frame.”
Leadership in the Indian National Congress
Served as President during the Karachi session in 1931, where significant resolutions on Fundamental Rights were passed.
Constitutional Contributions
Headed committees of the Constituent Assembly on Fundamental Rights and minority rights, contributing to the framing of the Indian Constitution.
Promotion of National Unity
Advocated “Ek Bharat, Shresth Bharat” (One India, Great India), emphasizing unity in diversity to build a cohesive nation.
Social Reforms
Worked against caste discrimination, untouchability, and alcohol consumption, promoting social justice and women’s rights.
PYQ:
[2011] What was the reason for Mahatma Gandhi to organize a satyagraha on behalf of the peasants of Kheda?
1. The Administration did not suspend the land revenue collection in spite of a drought.
2. The Administration proposed to introduce Permanent Settlement in Gujarat.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
The Prime Minister in his recent broadcast of “Mann Ki Baat” warned about the ‘Digital Arrest’ scams in India.
What is Digital Arrest?
Details
What are they?
A fraudulent scheme where scammers impersonate law enforcement officials to extort money from victims under the false pretence of an arrest.
Modus Operandi
• Scammers use audio or video calls to intimidate victims.
• Claim involvement in illegal activities (e.g., drugs, contraband).
• Victims are kept under constant visual surveillance until demands are met.
Common Tactics
• Use of deepfake videos and fake arrest warrants.
• Threats regarding family members being involved in crimes.
• Fake claims about parcels containing illegal goods.
Victim Impact
Victims may face significant financial losses, emotional distress, and a sense of vulnerability due to the intimidation tactics employed by scammers.
Recent Trends
• Increase in reported cases; over 11 lakh complaints of financial cyber fraud in 2023.
• Rising incidents attributed to the expansion of internet users.
Prevention Measures
• Awareness of scams and verification of callers’ identities.
• Immediate disconnection of suspicious calls.
• Reporting incidents to local police and cybercrime helplines.
Legal Framework
• Governed by the Information Technology Act, 2000.
• Reports can be filed through the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (www.cybercrime.gov.in).
PYQ:
[2017] In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents?
1. Service providers
2. Data centres
3. Body corporate
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
In Chhattisgarh’s Hasdeo Arand forest, tribals ambushed the police after tree-felling resumed for coal mining in the area.
What is the Hasdeo Arand Forest?
Hasdeo Arand Forest is known as the “lungs of Chhattisgarh” due to its rich biodiversity.
It is the largest unfragmented forest in Central India with pristine Sal and teak forests.
It spans 1,879.6 sq km across the Sarguja, Korba, and Surajpur districts in Chhattisgarh.
The Hasdeo River runs through the forest.
It is home to nine protected species under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, including:
Elephants, leopards, sloth bears, Indian grey wolves, and Indian pangolins.
It supports 92 bird species, 25 mammals, 16 types of snakes, and serves as a corridor for elephants and tigers.
It hosts 640 plant species, including 128 medicinal plants and 40 timber-yielding species.
Why are the People Protesting for its ‘Protection’?
Environmental Impact: Mining threatens to destroy the forest cover, impacting biodiversity and wildlife corridors.
Livelihood Concerns: Local communities depend on the forest for farming and forest produce.
Displacement Issues: Villagers report inadequate compensation and resettlement offers, which do not match the size of their current homes.
Alleged Forgery: Villagers allege that fake gram sabha resolutions were used to secure clearances for mining projects.
Demand for Cancellations: Activists want the Parsa coal block cancelled and assurances that the 1,995 sq km Lemru Reserve Forest will be protected from future mining.
PYQ:
[2012] A particular State in India has the following characteristics:
1. It is located on the same latitude which passes through northern Rajasthan.
2. It has over 70% of its area under forest cover.
3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes Protected Area Network in this State.
Which one among the following States has all the above characteristics?
A team of researchers has discovered the genetic mechanisms that allow a newly identified tardigrades species—Hypsibius henanensis—to withstand high levels of radiation.
About Tardigrades
Tardigrades, often called “water bears” or “moss piglets,” are tiny, water-dwelling microorganisms known for their remarkable ability to survive extreme conditions.
They can withstand environments that would be lethal for most life forms, including:
Extremely high and low temperatures (from near absolute zero to over 150°C),
High levels of radiation and vacuum conditions found in space,
Extreme dehydration (losing nearly all water in their bodies),
High pressures (up to six times that of the ocean’s deepest trenches).
This adaptability makes them a subject of interest for scientists, especially in understanding survival mechanisms in extreme conditions.
How Tardigrades resist High Radiations?
The researchers identified 2,801 genes involved in DNA repair. Three key factors contributing to radiation tolerance include:
DNA Repair Protein (TRID1): Enabled the species to repair double-strand DNA breaks due to radiation.
Gene Activation for Mitochondrial Proteins: Radiation exposure activated a gene that produced two proteins vital for mitochondrial synthesis and DNA repair.
Antioxidant Pigments (Betalains): These pigments neutralize harmful chemicals generated by radiation within cells.
![[pib] Raigad Fort](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/raigad.jpg)
