The Government of India invoked the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 to direct oil refiners to maximise production of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and prioritise domestic cooking gas supply amid disruptions in global energy supply chains.
About Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (ECA)The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (ECA) is a law enacted by the Government of India to ensure the availability of essential goods to consumers at fair prices and prevent hoarding, black marketing, and artificial scarcity.Amendment and Reforms (2020)In 2020, the government introduced reforms to liberalise agricultural markets.Key changes:Cereals, pulses, oilseeds, edible oils, onions, and potatoes were removed from the list of essential commodities under normal circumstances.Stock limits can be imposed only under extraordinary situations such as: War, Famine, and Extraordinary price rise.
Key Government Directive
All oil refining companies must use propane and butane streams primarily for LPG production.
Refiners are not allowed to divert propane or butane for:
Petrochemical products
Other downstream industrial uses.
LPG produced must be supplied to public sector oil marketing companies.
Major public sector oil marketing companies include:
Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited
These companies will distribute LPG only to domestic consumers.
[2010] Consider the following statements: The Union Government fixes the Statutory Minimum Price of sugarcane for each sugar season. Sugar and sugarcane are essential commodities under the Essential Commodities Act. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
A report by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) analysing Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) data found that 204 out of 238 Indian cities exceeded national air quality standards during winter 2025–26.
Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA)Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) is an independent international research organisation that focuses on energy, air pollution, and climate change analysis. It is widely cited in global media and policy discussions for its data-driven assessments of fossil fuel use, emissions, and air quality impacts.
Key Findings of the Report
Most Polluted Cities
Top cities with the highest PM2.5 concentration: Ghaziabad – 172 µg/m³, Noida – 166 µg/m³, and Delhi – 163 µg/m³
Other highly polluted cities include: Greater Noida, Bahadurgarh, Dharuhera, Gurugram, Bhiwadi, Charkhi Dadri, and Baghpat.
Most cities in the top 10 are from Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
Megacity Air Pollution Levels
Average PM2.5 concentrations in major Indian cities:
Delhi – 163 µg/m³
Kolkata – 78 µg/m³
Mumbai – 48 µg/m³
Chennai – 44 µg/m³
Bengaluru – 39 µg/m³ (slightly below national limit)
Cleanest City
The cleanest city recorded was: Chamarajanagar – 19 µg/m³
Eight of the ten cleanest cities were in Karnataka, with one each in Madhya Pradesh and Meghalaya.
PM2.5 Explained
PM2.5 (Particulate Matter ≤2.5 micrometers)
Extremely fine particles in the air.
Can enter lungs and bloodstream.
Causes: Respiratory diseases, Heart disease, and Premature deaths.
Prelims Pointers
CPCB functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) specify permissible pollutant levels in India.
PM2.5 is considered one of the most dangerous air pollutants due to its ability to penetrate deep into the respiratory system.
[2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 µg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 µg/m³. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only
PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2014] What do you understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.Linkage: The question examines the scope of Article 19(1)(a) and the permissible restrictions under Article 19(2), which form the constitutional basis for regulating hate speech in India. It links directly to current debates on judicial intervention, hate speech laws under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), and restrictions on speech to maintain public order and social harmony.
Mentor’s Comment
The debate on hate speech and constitutional accountability has resurfaced after recent judicial proceedings concerning alleged communal remarks by a senior political leader. Courts have reiterated that while India possesses several legal provisions to curb hate speech, implementation remains weak and inconsistent. The discussion also raises deeper constitutional questions, whether hate speech should be treated merely as a criminal offenceor also as a constitutional tort.
What is Hate Speech in Indian Law?
Hate speech in India does not have a single statutory definition. It generally refers to words, signs, electronic communication, or representations that incite hatred, discrimination, or violence against individuals or groups based on religion, race, caste, community, language, or place of birth. The regulation of hate speech operates through criminal law provisions under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 and constitutional restrictions that balance freedom of speech with public order and social harmony.
Key Legal Provisions
Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023
Section 196: Penalises promotion of enmity or hatred between groups on grounds such as religion, race, caste, language, or community, especially when it threatens public tranquillity.
Section 298: Punishes deliberate and malicious acts intended to outrage religious feelings through words, signs, or representations.
Section 353(2): Criminalises statements, rumours, or reports that create or promote enmity, hatred, or ill-will between different classes of people.
Special Legislation
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Prohibits public insults, intimidation, or hate speech targeting SC/ST communities, particularly when committed in public view.
Electoral Law
Representation of the People Act, 1951: Treats appeals to religion, caste, or community during elections as a corrupt electoral practice, enabling action by the Election Commission of India.
Constitutional Basis
Article 19(1)(a): Guarantees freedom of speech and expression.
Article 19(2): Allows reasonable restrictions on speech in the interests of public order, security of the state, morality, and decency.
Key Concepts and Legal Understanding
Law Commission Definition: The Law Commission of India Report No. 267 characterises hate speech as speech that incites violence, discrimination, or hostility against groups based on identity markers.
Online Hate Speech Regulation: Offensive online speech earlier addressed under Information Technology Act, 2000 Section 66A was struck down in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India for vagueness; however, online hate speech remains punishable under BNS provisions.
Threshold for Criminal Liability: Hate speech law targets speech that creates public disorder, discrimination, or violence, not merely speech that causes offence or hurt sentiments.
Recent Policy Developments: States such as Karnataka have proposed dedicated legislation like the Karnataka Hate Speech and Hate Crimes (Prevention) Bill to impose stricter penalties and clearer definitions.
What has been the recent role of the judiciary in addressing hate speech?
Preventive guidelines on mob lynching and hate crimes: In Tehseen Poonawalla v. Union of India, the Supreme Court of India directed states to appoint nodal officers in every district, establish special task forces, identify sensitive areas, and ensure fast-track trials and victim compensation in hate crime cases.
Regulation of inflammatory speech during elections: In Abhiram Singh v. C.D. Commachen, the Supreme Court of India held that candidates cannot seek votes on the basis of religion, caste, race, language, or community, reinforcing secular electoral practices under the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
Need for legislative action against hate speech: In Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan v. Union of India, the Court acknowledged the growing threat of hate speech but stated that courts cannot create new offences and urged Parliament to enact stronger legislation.
Distinction between advocacy and incitement: In Shreya Singhal v. Union of India, the Court clarified that only speech that incites violence or public disorder can be restricted, establishing the “advocacy vs incitement” test for regulating speech.
Guidelines on preventive policing (2023 directions): The Supreme Court of India directed states to register FIRs suo motu against hate speech without waiting for formal complaints and mandated immediate preventive action by police authorities.
Recent judicial scrutiny (2026): Petitions seeking criminal prosecution of Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma for alleged communal remarks led the Supreme Court of India to direct petitioners to approach the Gauhati High Court, which issued a notice on 26 February 2026, reflecting continued judicial monitoring of hate speech complaints.
Why is hate speech difficult to define and criminalise?
Prejudicial discourse: Hate speech often manifests as narratives that marginalise communities rather than direct calls to violence, making legal classification difficult.
Ambiguity in language: Political rhetoric frequently uses dog whistles or coded expressions, enabling speakers to deny explicit intent.
Context of social hierarchy: Harm arises not only from the speech but also from existing inequalities and power relations.
High threshold for criminal liability: Criminal law requires proof of clear incitement or threat, which many divisive speeches avoid.
Should hate speech be treated as a constitutional tort?
State accountability principle: A constitutional tort holds the state liable when failure to act leads to rights violations.
Failure of enforcement: Repeated inaction by authorities allows hate speech to continue unchecked.
Judicial remedy: Courts could award compensation to victims when the state fails to prevent or respond to hate speech.
Strengthening institutional responsibility: Such recognition would compel authorities to respond swiftly to hate speech incidents.
How does political rhetoric contribute to the spread of hate speech?
Electoral mobilisation: Communal narratives are often deployed to consolidate vote banks.
Leadership signalling: Statements from senior political leaders influence behaviour of lower-level actors.
Institutional inertia: Lack of decisive action by institutions encourages repetition of divisive rhetoric.
Public discourse polarisation: Hate speech deepens social divisions and marginalises vulnerable groups.
How effective has the Supreme Court’s intervention been?
Judicial directives: In Tehseen Poonawalla v. Union of India, the Court issued guidelines to prevent mob lynching and hate crimes.
Administrative measures: Courts directed states to appoint nodal officers to monitor hate crimes.
Further orders (2023): States were directed to register FIRs suo motu in hate speech cases.
Monitoring challenge: Courts face difficulty supervising compliance across all states.
Reluctance to intervene directly: In some cases, the Court has transferred matters to High Courts rather than exercising its powers under Article 142.
Do existing legal provisions adequately address hate speech?
Representation of the People Act, 1951: Enables the Election Commission of India to act against hate speech during elections.
Section 123(3A) of the RPA, 1951: Defines the promotion of enmity or hatred between classes of citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste, community, or language as a “corrupt practice”.
Criminal law provisions: Sections of the IPC and now BNSS address promoting enmity between groups and inciting violence.
Implementation gaps: Evidence shows inconsistent enforcement of these provisions.
Political climate factor: Without political consensus, legal provisions alone struggle to curb hate speech.
Could a comprehensive hate speech law improve regulation?
Law Commission recommendation: Suggested dedicated criminal provisions for hate speech.
Karnataka Hate Speech and Hate Crimes (Prevention) Bill, 2025: Attempts to address hate speech through a legislative framework.
Conceptual limitation: Critics argue that the bill focuses on injury or offence rather than structural discrimination.
Broad definitions: Overly expansive definitions risk arbitrary application and misuse.
Implementation testing: Effectiveness can only be evaluated after operationalisation.
Conclusion
India possesses multiple legal provisions addressing hate speech, yet enforcement remains inconsistent. Judicial directives have attempted to strengthen accountability, but structural reforms, legislative clarity, and political commitment are essential. Effective regulation requires balancing free speech with constitutional values of equality, dignity, and social harmony.
India has retained its position as the world’s largest rice exporter, accounting for over 40% of global rice exports, but recent data reveals a structural imbalance between production, irrigation patterns, and export strategy. While basmati rice earns far higher export value, most irrigation and policy support remains concentrated in water-intensive non-basmati cultivation in Punjab and Haryana. Also there is an intensified debate on climate stress and declining water tables that expose the long-term ecological and economic risks of India’s current rice policy.
Why is India the world’s largest rice exporter?
Global export dominance: India accounted for 21.69 million tonnes of rice exports in 2024-25, representing over 40% of global rice trade.
Comparative advantage: India produces both basmati and non-basmati rice varieties, allowing access to multiple international markets.
Competitive pricing: Large-scale production and government support through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and procurement policies reduce export costs.
Production scale: India produced around 152 million tonnes of rice, ensuring a large exportable surplus.
Regional specialization:
Basmati rice: Cultivated mainly in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Jammu & Kashmir.
Non-basmati rice: Produced widely across eastern and southern India.
Why does rice cultivation create severe environmental stress in India?
Water-intensive crop: Rice cultivation requires 3,000-5,000 litres of water per kilogram of rice produced.
Groundwater depletion: Paddy cultivation in Punjab and Haryana relies heavily on tube wells, causing rapid decline in groundwater levels.
Flood irrigation practices: Traditional transplantation method keeps fields submerged for long periods, increasing water consumption
Energy consumption: Extensive pumping of groundwater increases electricity consumption and subsidy burden.
How does India’s rice export composition reveal policy imbalance?
High-value basmati exports: Basmati rice generates higher export value per tonne, mainly exported to West Asia, Europe, and North America.
Lower-value non-basmati exports: Non-basmati rice contributes large volumes but lower revenue.
Export value trends:
Basmati exports: Around $5.8-$6.9 billion annually.
Non-basmati exports: Around $4.5-$6.5 billion annually.
Policy paradox: Most irrigation subsidies and procurement incentives favour non-basmati rice production in water-stressed regions, rather than high-value basmati.
Why are irrigation and cropping patterns considered inefficient?
Concentration in water-stressed regions: Major rice cultivation occurs in Punjab and Haryana, regions with limited natural rainfall.
Delayed monsoon alignment: Rice transplantation often begins before monsoon arrival, increasing reliance on groundwater.
Procurement bias: Government agencies procure large quantities of rice from north-west India, reinforcing unsustainable cropping patterns.
Limited crop diversification: Farmers hesitate to shift to pulses, maize, or oilseeds due to assured rice procurement.
What reforms are necessary to ensure sustainable rice production?
Crop diversification: Encourages shift from paddy to maize, pulses, oilseeds, and millets in water-stressed regions.
Promotion of direct seeded rice (DSR): Reduces water usage by 20-30% and lowers labour demand.
Expansion of basmati cultivation: Higher-value exports generate greater income per hectare with comparatively lower water intensity.
Irrigation efficiency: Adoption of micro-irrigation and precision farming reduces water consumption.
Regional redistribution: Promotes rice cultivation in eastern states such as Bihar, West Bengal, Odisha, and Assam, which have higher rainfall.
Conclusion
India’s rice export success masks underlying ecological and economic vulnerabilities. Continued expansion of water-intensive rice cultivation in groundwater-stressed regions threatens long-term agricultural sustainability. Reforms must prioritize water-efficient cultivation, crop diversification, and expansion of high-value basmati exports. Aligning agricultural incentives with resource sustainability and market efficiency is essential to ensure that India remains a global rice leader without compromising environmental security.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2020] What are the major factors responsible for making the rice-wheat system a success? In spite of this success, how has this system become a bane in India?
Linkage: This PYQ directly relates to the issue of rice-wheat monoculture driven by MSP, procurement, and irrigation policies, which boosted food security after the Green Revolution. However, the same system has led to groundwater depletion, soil degradation, and unsustainable cropping patterns, highlighting the need to rethink India’s rice production and export strategy.
The United States has announced plans to deploy precision gravity bombs against Iranian targets, signalling a shift in military strategy from remote missile strikes to direct aerial bombing operations. Earlier operations relied on stand-off munitions launched from safe distances to avoid Iranian air defence systems. The move toward gravity bombs suggests that the US military believes Iranian air defences have been significantly degraded in recent operations.
What are gravity bombs and how do they function?
Free-fall munition: Gravity bombs are unguided bombs without propulsion systems, dropped from aircraft and guided by gravity and aerodynamics toward the target.
Trajectory mechanics: The bomb’s path depends on gravity, aerodynamic drag, aircraft speed, altitude, and release angle.
Modern upgrades: The integration of JDAM kits with GPS guidance and steerable fins converts traditional bombs into precision-guided munitions.
Operational evolution: Despite their historical association with World War-era weapons, modern gravity bombs form a core component of contemporary US Air Force strike capability.
Operational theatres: These bombs have been deployed extensively in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Syria and also used in conflicts involving Israel in Gaza and Lebanon.
Why has the United States relied on stand-off weapons until now?
Stand-off strategy: Long-range munitions allow attacks without entering enemy air defence zones, minimizing pilot risk.
Cruise missile systems: Weapons such as the Tomahawk cruise missile are launched from naval destroyers or stealth aircraft and can strike targets hundreds of kilometres away.
Drone warfare: Systems like the LUCAS drone (Low-cost Unmanned Combat Attack System) provide remote strike capability
Risk mitigation: Stand-off weapons reduce the probability of pilot casualties and aircraft losses.
Air defence challenge: Iran’s layered air defence network previously limited the feasibility of direct bombing missions.
What are the main types of conventional US gravity bombs?
MK-82 (500-pound bomb): Designed for soft targets such as light vehicles, radar installations, and exposed infantry positions.
MK-83 (1,000-pound bomb): Used against reinforced structures, command posts, and smaller bridges.
MK-84 (2,000-pound bomb): A bunker-buster weapon capable of penetrating deep military complexes or large industrial facilities.
Blast impact: The MK-84 can produce craters up to 50 feet wide and 36 feet deep.
Operational series: Current US operations rely primarily on the Mark-80 series bombs equipped with JDAM kits.
How do conventional gravity bombs differ from nuclear gravity bombs?
Conventional payload: Standard gravity bombs carry chemical explosive charges and cause destruction through blast and fragmentation.
Nuclear variants: The US arsenal also includes nuclear gravity bombs such as the B61 and B83 series, capable of delivering explosive yields measured in kilotons or megatons of TNT.
Strategic control: Nuclear gravity bombs require explicit authorisation from the US President before deployment.
Escalation risk: Their use would represent a major escalation in global nuclear tensions.
Why is the US shifting from stand-off missiles to gravity bombs?
Cost efficiency: Cruise missiles cost millions of dollars per strike, while gravity bombs cost approximately $25,000-$30,000 when equipped with JDAM kits.
Air superiority assumption: Direct bombing missions are viable only if a military has neutralised enemy air defence systems.
Tactical trade-off: Gravity bombs reduce costs but increase risk to pilots and aircraft.
Strategic signalling: The shift suggests that US forces believe Iranian anti-aircraft systems have been weakened.
Which aircraft platforms can deploy these gravity bombs?
F-15 Strike Eagle: Multi-role fighter capable of precision ground strikes.
F-35 stealth fighter: Provides low-observable penetration of defended airspace.
B-52 Stratofortress: Long-range strategic bomber capable of carrying large payloads of conventional bombs.
Operational flexibility: Gravity bombs can be deployed by fighter jets, stealth aircraft, and heavy bombers, enabling diverse operational strategies.
Conclusion
The proposed use of gravity bombs reflects a significant tactical transition in modern warfare, from expensive remote missile strikes toward cost-efficient direct bombardment enabled by precision guidance technologies. This shift indicates confidence in degrading Iranian air defence systems while highlighting the continuing relevance of traditional aerial bombs in the era of advanced precision warfare.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence system technically superior to any other system presently available in the world?
Linkage: This question highlights the role of advanced air defence systems in establishing air superiority, a key factor that determines whether direct bombing missions (such as gravity bomb deployment) are feasible. Understanding such systems helps analyse modern warfare dynamics, including missile defence, aerial dominance, and the strategic use of precision air strikes.
An Iranian warship IRIS Dena was reportedly torpedoed by a US submarine in the Indian Ocean near Sri Lanka after participating in the MILAN 2026 and the International Fleet Review at Visakhapatnam. The incident has sparked debate about the legal framework governing naval warfare in international waters.
Key Legal Framework Governing Maritime Conflict
1. UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea regulates maritime zones, navigation rights and ocean governance.
It mainly governs peacetime maritime activities.
It does not directly regulate wartime naval operations.
Notably, the United States is not a signatory to UNCLOS.
2. Law of Naval Warfare
During armed conflict, naval warfare laws operate alongside UNCLOS.
Key principles include:
Warships of enemy states can be legitimate military targets.
The laws of armed conflict at sea regulate blockades, attacks, and treatment of vessels.
3. UN Charter and Use of Force
The United Nations Charter provides rules for the use of force.
Article 2(4): Prohibits the use of force against another state.
Article 51: Allows self-defence in response to an armed attack.
4. UN Security Council Authorization
Under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the United Nations Security Council can authorise the use of force.
However:
Requires majority approval.
None of the permanent members must use their veto.
Maritime Zones Relevant to the Incident
Territorial Sea – up to 12 nautical miles from coast (full sovereignty).
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) – up to 200 nautical miles where coastal states have economic rights.
High Seas – international waters beyond national jurisdiction. The attack reportedly occurred in the EEZ of Sri Lanka.
[2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements: A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
India and Finland have elevated their bilateral relations to a “Strategic Partnership in Digitalization and Sustainability” after talks between Narendra Modi and Finnish President Alexander Stubb in New Delhi.
Key Outcomes of the Visit
Strategic Partnership Focus
Cooperation will expand in high-technology sectors such as:
Artificial Intelligence
6G telecommunications
Clean energy
Quantum computing
Digital infrastructure
Agreements Signed
Three agreements were signed in the fields of:
Mobility cooperation
Environment and sustainability
Statistics and data sharing
New Institutional Mechanisms
The two countries will establish:
Joint Working Group on Digitalization
Joint Task Force on 6G technology
Consular Dialogue mechanism
Greater connectivity between startup ecosystems
Economic Cooperation
India and Finland aim to double bilateral trade by 2030.
The countries will co-host the World Circular Economy Forum in India.
Cooperation expected in sectors such as: Defence, Space, Semiconductors and Critical minerals
Existing India–Finland Cooperation
Examples highlighted during the meeting include:
Finnish company Nokia helping build telecom networks in India.
Finnish architectural collaboration in constructing the Chenab Railway Bridge.
Finland’s partnership in establishing the world’s largest bamboo-to-bioethanol refinery at Numaligarh in Assam.
Consider the following countries: 1. Finland 2. Germany 3. Norway 4. Russia How many of the above countries have a border with the North Sea? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four
The ongoing conflict involving Iran, Israel and the United States has pushed up oil prices and disrupted energy supplies. Analysts believe the situation may slow India’s economic growth, while the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is likely to keep interest rates relatively low.
Key Economic Developments
Oil prices have risen about 15% after the conflict began.
The Indian rupee has hit record lows and bond yields have risen.
Financial markets saw sell-offs in equity, debt and currency markets.
These developments have raised concerns about India’s current account deficit and growth outlook.
Impact on India’s Economy
Slower Economic Growth: Disruption of natural gas supplies from the Middle East may affect sectors such as:
Fertilizers
Power generation
If disruptions last more than four weeks, growth could be affected for at least a quarter.
Oil Price Risk: If crude oil prices stay above $90–95 per barrel for several quarters,
India’s growth may slow from above 7% to around 6.5%.
Pressure on External Balance: Higher oil prices can:
India’s retail inflation was 2.75% in January, near the lower end of RBI’s 2–6% tolerance band.
A 10–20% rise in global oil prices may increase inflation by 25–50 basis points.
Government actions such as holding retail fuel prices steady or reducing excise duties may cushion inflation.
RBI’s Likely Policy Response
RBI had already cut the repo rate by 125 basis points in 2025.
Policymakers may prioritise supporting economic growth rather than raising rates immediately.
However, if oil prices cross $100 per barrel, central banks globally may adopt a more hawkish stance.
[2023] Consider the following statements: Statement-I: In the post-pandemic recent past, many Central Banks worldwide had carried out interest rate hikes. Statement-II: Central Banks generally assume that they have the ability to counteract the rising consumer prices via monetary policy means. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
Health experts and anti-tobacco activists are demanding stricter regulation or a ban on nicotine pouches, which are increasingly being sold online in India. Tamil Nadu’s Directorate of Drugs Control has issued alerts and notices against their illegal sale.
What are Nicotine Pouches?
Small microfiber pouches containing nicotine powder, flavourings and additives.
Placed between the gum and lip, where nicotine is absorbed through the mouth lining.
Do not contain tobacco, but still deliver nicotine directly to the bloodstream.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, nicotine pouches dissolve in the mouth and do not require spitting.
Why Experts Are Concerned
Highly Addictive: Nicotine is a highly addictive chemical, especially harmful for youth and pregnant women.
Not Approved for Smoking Cessation: Neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor Indian authorities approve nicotine pouches as a quitting aid.
Health Risks: Possible effects include:
Cardiovascular problems
Gum disease and oral health issues
Increased overall nicotine intake
Some pouches reportedly contain up to 50 mg nicotine, far higher than standard nicotine replacement products.
[2020] Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution? Automobile exhaust Tobacco smoke Wood burning Using varnished wooden furniture Using products made of polyurethane Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
India has launched a large-scale HPV vaccination campaign for adolescent girls using Gardasil, while the India-made vaccine Cervavac has not yet been included in the national immunisation programme due to ongoing research on its single-dose effectiveness.
HPV Vaccine Campaign in India
India plans to vaccinate 1.15 crore girls aged 14 years.
The campaign currently uses Gardasil-4, developed by Merck.
Vaccination is supported by funding from Gavi.
About the Indigenous Vaccine: Cervavac
Developed through collaboration between:
Department of Biotechnology
BIRAC
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
Serum Institute of India
Officially launched in 2022.
Estimated price if procured by government: ₹200–400 per dose (much cheaper than global vaccines).
Why Cervavac is Not Yet in the Programme
Ongoing ICMR Study: The Indian Council of Medical Research is studying whether one dose of Cervavac produces enough long-lasting antibodies. Results expected by 2027.
WHO Recommendation Change: The World Health Organization now allows single-dose HPV vaccination in national programmes. Gardasil already has WHO prequalification for single-dose use, while Cervavac does not yet.
Free Vaccine Supply: India received GAVI support providing limited “free” HPV vaccine doses, encouraging the use of Gardasil initially.
New WHO guidance (2022): Countries may use single-dose schedules to improve coverage and reduce costs.
Single-dose programmes are easier to implement because adolescent girls may not return for the second dose.
Burden of Cervical Cancer in India
Second most common cancer among Indian women.
About 80,000 new cases annually.
Around 42,000 deaths each year.
India accounts for about 20% of global cervical cancer cases.
About HPV (Human Papillomavirus)
A group of viruses spread mainly through sexual contact.
Certain strains such as HPV-16 and HPV-18 cause most cervical cancers.
Vaccination significantly reduces risk.
[2022] In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector-based platform. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen-based vaccine. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
