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  • India has ridden out crisis of Iran war but a much bigger challenge is upon it

    Why in the News

    Donald Trump’s foreign policy has exposed a challenge for India as serious as the 1991 Balance of Payments (BoP) crisis, this time centred on commerce, critical minerals, computer chips, and AI infrastructure rather than a single macroeconomic emergency.

    How does 2026 mirror 1991, and how does it differ?

    1. Financial position is stronger, but growth is not: India’s finances in 2026 are far more robust than in 1991, yet GDP growth remains at 6%, consistent with the 30 year average but well below the 8% benchmark, as the rupee depreciated and Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) moved capital out.
    2. A Gulf war shock recurs: Just as the 1990-91 Gulf War pushed up India’s import bill in 1991, the West Asia conflict in 2026 has driven energy shortages and inflation.
    3. The security backstop has changed form, not disappeared entirely: In 1991, the Soviet collapse removed India’s counterweight to China and the US; in 2026, Washington’s retreat from alliances and interest in a “G-2” accommodation with Beijing again leaves India without a reliable security backstop.
    4. China’s lead has widened, not narrowed: China’s GDP was only slightly larger than India’s by 1991; by 2026 it stands at US$20 trillion against India’s US$4 trillion, and at current growth rates the gap will widen from US$16 trillion to US$24 trillion by 2050.

    What makes the “four Cs” challenge harder to fix than the 1991 crisis?

    1. Commerce and manufacturing: Manufacturing has stagnated despite 30 years of policy encouragement, unlike the relatively simple structural reforms that resolved the 1991 crisis.
    2. Critical minerals and rare earths: India has reserves but has not adequately mapped or mined them, and processing capacity is a separate unresolved challenge, with dependence on China ranging from 50% to nearly 100% across minerals and metals.
    3. Computer chips: NITI Aayog estimates that 90% to 95% of India’s semiconductor demand will still be met by imports until 2035.
    4. AI infrastructure: India has strengths in AI adoption and AI talent but little presence in the AI value chain itself.

    What is the deeper tension the piece does not resolve?

    1. Geopolitical alignment is unresolved: The piece poses, without answering, whether India should pursue a “hide-and-bide” strategy with both the US and China, or attempt a more ambitious reset with Beijing modelled on how China itself used American imports, investment, and innovation after 1972.
    2. Pakistan’s positioning has hardened: Pakistan is again “triumphalist,” deeply integrated with China’s military, and was a mediator between the US and Iran in 2026, echoing its 1991 alignment with the winning side of the Cold War.

    Conclusion

    India has absorbed the immediate economic shock of the Iran war, but the underlying four Cs problem (commerce, critical minerals, chips, and AI) is structurally harder than the 1991 crisis and cannot be fixed by macroeconomic reform alone. The piece calls for a coordinated national effort on the scale of a Manhattan Project, while leaving India’s broader geopolitical alignment between the US and China explicitly unresolved.

    Back2Basics

    1. India Semiconductor Mission (ISM): The Union government’s programme to build domestic semiconductor design, fabrication, and packaging capacity, aimed at reducing India’s near total reliance on imported chips.
    2. Critical Minerals Mission: The government’s initiative to secure critical mineral supply chains essential for clean energy, electronics, and defence technologies, given India’s dependence on imports, particularly China, for processing capacity.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025] India aims to become a semiconductor manufacturing hub. What are the challenges faced by the semiconductor industry in India? Mention the salient features of the India Semiconductor Mission.

    Linkage: The PYQ examines challenges in building India’s semiconductor ecosystem and reducing dependence on strategic technology imports. The article situates semiconductors within the broader “four Cs” challenge, arguing that strengthening domestic chip manufacturing is vital for India’s long-term economic and strategic resilience.

  • A growth story that needs women at work

    Mentor’s Comment

    With India’s youth unemployment already double its 2012 rate and GDP growth slower than official figures suggest, critics argue that India cannot sustain rapid growth or reach Viksit Bharat by 2047 while excluding half its population, women, from productive work.

    Why does raising female work participation matter for growth itself, not just for equity?

    1. Direct growth arithmetic: A 10 percentage point rise in India’s female Work Participation Rate (WPR) could add nearly two percentage points to GDP growth.
    2. Labour supply channel: More women in paid work expands the economy’s productive capacity and raises household incomes, consumption, and savings.
    3. Human capital channel: Higher household incomes from women’s earnings improve children’s nutrition, education, and healthcare, strengthening long term human capital.
    4. Productivity channel: Citing Nobel laureate Claudia Goldin, gender diverse workplaces are more efficient, creative, and competitive, making women’s inclusion a productivity strategy, not only a welfare measure.

    What explains the decline and stagnation in women’s work participation since the 1980s?

    1. Structural shift away from farming: As structural transformation reduced agriculture’s role between 2004-05 and 2012, mechanisation and falling demand for manual labour pushed rural women out of the workforce.
    2. The COVID reversal was distress, not choice: Post-2020 gains in women’s participation followed a GDP slowdown since 2017; return migration from cities pushed women into unpaid family labour in subsistence agriculture, a “distress driven feminisation of agriculture.”
    3. Capital intensive growth excludes women: India’s recent GDP growth has concentrated in capital intensive sectors like finance and information technology, which absorb few workers, while labour intensive sectors such as textiles and garments saw absolute employment fall between 2013 and 2019.
    4. Manufacturing’s broken promise: Fewer women were employed in manufacturing in 2019 than in 2004, despite Make in India and Performance-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes; women’s manufacturing employment did not recover to 2004 levels until 2022.

    Why does Tamil Nadu succeed where most of India does not?

    1. Tamil Nadu’s outsized concentration: More than 40% of India’s women factory workers are employed in Tamil Nadu, a state with only 5% to 6% of India’s population.
    2. Sectoral base: This concentration rests on strong textile and garment hubs in Tiruppur and Coimbatore, footwear, electronics assembly in Sriperumbudur, and automobile components.
    3. Enabling conditions: Higher female literacy, greater mobility, and well developed hostel and transport facilities for women workers underpin the sector’s ability to employ women at scale.
    4. The Hindi belt contrast: States there need investment in health (not merely insurance) and public education for girls and women to bring down malnutrition and stunting before they can replicate Tamil Nadu’s outcomes.

    Conclusion

    India’s growth story is incomplete without raising female work participation, and the deficit is concentrated in exactly the sectors, labour intensive manufacturing, that once absorbed women workers and have since collapsed for them. Closing the north-south divide by replicating Tamil Nadu’s combination of sectoral investment, education, and mobility infrastructure is presented as the precondition for India to be “Viksit” by 2047.

    Back2Basics

    1. Work Participation Rate (WPR): The proportion of the population that is economically active (working or seeking work); distinct from the unemployment rate, which measures only those seeking work among the labour force.
    2. U-shaped curve (Claudia Goldin): The empirical pattern where female labour force participation first falls as an economy industrialises and household incomes rise, then rises again as education and the services sector expand, a pattern India’s data through 2018-19 is shown to follow.

    Question (2014): Discuss the various economic and socio-cultural forces that are driving increasing feminization of agriculture in India.

  • Can airport operator own airline? Concerns over fair access

    Why in the News?

    The Centre is weighing a policy relaxation that would let airport operators also own airlines, breaking a long standing separation between the two businesses. IndiGo has called the move a “massive conflict of interest,” setting airport neutrality against a shortage of investors willing to fund a new airline for years before it turns a profit.

    Is this a market access problem or a capital problem?

    1. Capital as the entry barrier: A new domestic airline must survive losses for about seven years against incumbents controlling two thirds of the market; the Adani and GMR groups already have that capital through their airport businesses.
    2. Existing ownership caps: Airport operators at Delhi (GMR, 74%) and Mumbai (Adani, 74%) are barred from holding more than 10% in a scheduled carrier, and the restriction runs in reverse for airlines holding airport stakes.
    3. Government’s stated objective: The Civil Aviation Ministry wants more competition against the IndiGo and Air India duopoly, which together hold over 90% of the domestic market.
    4. Adani’s denial: Adani Enterprises has denied evaluating any airline entry, even as reports say the relaxation follows the group’s own request for an enabling policy.

    Why does vertical integration between an airport and an airline invite regulatory caution?

    1. Airports as natural monopolies: A city typically has one major airport, so it must provide neutral, non discriminatory infrastructure and access to every carrier operating there.
    2. Slot allocation conflict: If the airport operator is also the slot coordinator, competing airlines cannot be certain that slot decisions are free of bias toward the operator’s own airline.
    3. Shared infrastructure dependence: Airlines rely on the airport for parking bays, check in counters, and aircraft stands, and any preferential treatment on these fronts would amount to an anti-competitive practice even without proven discrimination.
    4. The efficiency counter-argument: An airport’s revenue increasingly comes from footfall, so an airport that owns an airline may want more flights at lower fares rather than fewer at higher ones, an incentive that could align with, not against, competition.

    What do international precedents actually demonstrate?

    1. Dubai: Emirates and Dubai Airport are both government owned but kept as separate corporate entities with independent management.
    2. Abu Dhabi: Etihad and Abu Dhabi Airport follow the same government owned but corporately separate structure.
    3. Doha: Qatar Airways and Doha Airport are likewise state owned yet run as distinct entities.
    4. Singapore: Changi Airport and Singapore Airlines are linked only through the state’s investment ecosystem, with separate management and regulatory oversight.
    5. Limits of the comparison: Every one of these examples is a hub airport in a market with virtually no domestic air traffic and airline ownership concentrated in the state; India’s airports and airlines are almost entirely private, and its aviation market resembles Europe’s more than West Asia’s or Singapore’s.

    What safeguards would a relaxation require if it goes ahead?

    1. Structural separation: Independent boards and management teams for the airport and airline businesses.
    2. Information firewalls: Protection of competing carriers’ commercially sensitive information from the affiliated airline.
    3. Independent slot coordination: A slot coordinator insulated from the airport operator’s airline interests.
    4. Transparent allocation: Published, non discriminatory gate and terminal allocation policies.

    Conclusion

    The proposal tests whether India should solve a capital shortage in its airline sector by relaxing a structural safeguard designed to keep airports neutral. Global practice offers no true precedent for a private, multi-airline, multi-operator market like India’s, so any relaxation would need enforceable firewalls, not just a change in the equity cap, to prevent slot allocation and infrastructure access from tilting toward the airport operator’s own carrier.

    Back2Basics

    1. Slot coordination: The process by which take-off and landing time slots at a congested airport are allocated among competing airlines; India’s slot coordinators are expected to act as neutral third parties.
    2. Vertical integration: A firm’s ownership of successive stages of a supply chain (here, both the airport infrastructure and an airline that uses it), which competition regulators scrutinise because it can let a firm favour its own downstream business.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2014] International civil aviation laws provide all countries complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above the territory. What do you understand by airspace? What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggests ways to contain the threat.
    Linkage: The PYQ examines challenges in aviation infrastructure, market competition, and regulatory frameworks governing the civil aviation sector. The article discusses allowing airport operators to own airlines, highlighting concerns over competition, airport neutrality, and fair access to aviation infrastructure.

  • Delhi High Court declines interim injunction against OpenAI in ANI copyright suit

    Why in News?

    The Delhi High Court refused to grant interim relief to ANI in its copyright infringement case against OpenAI, holding that AI training on copyrighted content is covered by the fair dealing exception under the Copyright Act.

    Key Highlights

    • Justice Amit Bansal held that using ANI’s content to train Large Language Models (LLMs) falls under Section 52(1)(a) of the Copyright Act, 1957.
    • The Court found that ANI failed to prove any loss to its news syndication business.
    • ANI had earlier offered OpenAI a content licence for $7.5 million, indicating any potential damages are quantifiable.
    • The Court rejected ANI’s request to delete training data, noting OpenAI’s legal obligations under US law.
    • It observed that requiring licences from every copyright holder would make AI development economically unviable and highlighted AI’s public benefits in sectors such as education, healthcare, agriculture, and finance.
    • The Federation of Indian Publishers, Digital News Publishers Association, and Indian Music Industry joined the suit.

    Fair Dealing (Section 52, Copyright Act, 1957)

    • A statutory exception permitting limited use of copyrighted works without the owner’s permission.
    • Applies to purposes such as:
      • Private or personal use (including research)
      • Criticism or review
      • Reporting current events

    Copyright vs Patent

    • Copyright: Protects original literary, artistic, musical, dramatic works, films, and software.
    • Patent: Protects new inventions, granting exclusive rights generally for 20 years.

    Copyright Act, 1957

    • Governs protection of literary, artistic, musical, dramatic works, films, sound recordings, and software.
    • Grants creators exclusive rights over reproduction, adaptation, distribution, and communication of their works.
    • Section 52 provides exceptions under the doctrine of fair dealing.

    PYQ (2014, GS3, 12.5 Marks) In a globalised world, intellectual property rights assume significance and are a source of litigation. Broadly distinguish between the terms copyrights, patents and trade secrets.

    [2026] Which of the following statements with regard to Large Language Models (LLMs) used in machine learning is/are correct?
    1. LLMs assign probabilities to the next possible words and then pick the one with the highest probability.
    2. LLMs process data through mathematical optimization to minimise prediction errors.
    3. LLMs produce unbiased outputs.
    Select the answer using the code given below :

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 1 and 2 only

    [C] 2 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • Gujarat deluge erases monsoon deficit, but overall rain still low

    Why in News?

    Heavy rainfall in Gujarat erased India’s July rainfall deficit, but the overall southwest monsoon (June-September) remains below normal.

    Key Highlights

    • Cumulative rainfall since 1 June is 16.1% below normal.
    • East & Northeast India: 31.9% rainfall deficit.
    • South Peninsula: 26.8% deficit.
    • Heavy rainfall in Gujarat resulted from a low-pressure system interacting with a Western Disturbance.
    • Over 40,500 people were evacuated and 6,367 rescued due to flooding.
    • Ahmedabad recorded 294.6 mm rainfall in 24 hours, its highest since 2000.
    • Weak El Niño conditions have contributed to uneven monsoon distribution, affecting agriculture.

    El Niño

    • Warm phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
    • Characterised by warming of the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean.
    • Generally leads to weaker southwest monsoon and below-normal rainfall in India.

    IMD Classification of Rainfall

    • Normal: 96% to 104% of Long Period Average (LPA).
    • Below Normal: 90% to 96% of LPA.
    • Deficient: Less than 90% of LPA.

    Southwest Monsoon

    • Contributes nearly 75% of India’s annual rainfall.
    • Normally spans June to September.
    • Two branches:
      • Arabian Sea Branch
      • Bay of Bengal Branch

    PYQ (2014, GS1, 10 Marks) Most of the unusual climatic happenings are explained as an outcome of the El Niño effect. Do you agree?
    [2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1.OMT is measured up to a depth of 26ºC isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March.
    2.OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    a) 1 only
    b) 2 only
    c) Both 1 and 2
    d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Ken-Betwa stir claims its first win, activist suspends fast

    Why in News?

    An activist ended an 18-day hunger strike after the Madhya Pradesh government agreed to conduct fresh surveys of families allegedly excluded from rehabilitation under the Ken-Betwa Link Project.

    Key Highlights

    • Jai Kisan Sangathan leader Amit Bhatnagar suspended his indefinite fast after the government accepted the demand for fresh village-level surveys.
    • The issue concerns villages in the Daudhan Dam submergence area in Chhatarpur district, Madhya Pradesh.
    • Protesters alleged exclusion of eligible families from compensation and rehabilitation, flawed surveys, and irregularities in Gram Sabha proceedings.
    • Joint teams of government officials and Jai Kisan Sangathan representatives will conduct fresh surveys.
    • The agitation will continue under the banner of “Nyay Satyagraha.”

    Ken-Betwa Link Project

    • India’s first river interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan.
    • Links the Ken River (Madhya Pradesh) with the Betwa River (Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).
    • Comprises the Daudhan Dam, a 221-km canal, and associated infrastructure.
    • Aims to provide irrigation, drinking water, hydropower, and drought mitigation in the Bundelkhand region.

    Concerns

    • Submergence of forest areas, including parts of Panna Tiger Reserve.
    • Displacement and rehabilitation of affected communities.
    • Ecological impacts on river ecosystems and wildlife.

    National River Linking Project (NRLP)

    • Conceived by the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) in 1982.
    • Envisages 30 inter-basin links (16 Peninsular and 14 Himalayan) to transfer water from surplus to deficit basins.

    PYQ (2017, GS3, 10 Marks) Not many years ago, river linking was a concept but it is becoming reality in the country. Discuss the advantages of river linking and its possible impact on the environment.

    [2016] Recently, linking of which of the following rivers was undertaken?

    [A] Cauvery and Tungabhadra

    [B] Godavari and Krishna

    [C] Mahanadi and Sone

    [D] Narmada and Tapti

  • Telecom infra data can’t be shared outside India, says Govt

    Why in News?

    The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has mandated that telecom infrastructure providers store and process telecom network data only within India.

    Key Highlights

    • DoT barred telecom infrastructure providers from sharing telecom network data outside India.
    • Covers cloud-based telecom networks, mobile tower operators, and satellite gateway providers.
    • Mandates that all telecom network systems, data, logs, and related information be stored within India.
    • No copies of such data can be routed, shared, or made available outside the country.
    • Issued under the authorisation framework of the Telecommunications Act, 2023, replacing the earlier licensing regime.

    Data Localisation

    • Refers to storing and processing data within the country’s borders.
    • Benefits:
      • Strengthens national security and cyber resilience.
      • Improves regulatory oversight and law enforcement access.
      • Enhances protection of critical digital infrastructure.
    • Challenges:
      • Higher compliance costs for companies.
      • Concerns over cross-border data flows and global cloud operations.

    Telecommunications Act, 2023

    • Replaced the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885.
    • Introduces an authorisation-based regime instead of licensing.
    • Aims to strengthen telecom security, spectrum management, user protection, and digital infrastructure governance.

    PYQ (2018, GS3, 15 Marks) Data security has assumed significant importance in the digitized world due to rising cyber crimes. The Justice B. N. Srikrishna Committee Report addresses issues related to data security. What, in your view, are the strengths and weaknesses of the Report relating to protection of personal data in cyberspace?

  • Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Bill, 2026

    Why in News?

    The Union Government introduced the Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Bill, 2026 in the Rajya Sabha to extend statutory protection to the National Song (Vande Mataram).

    Key Highlights

    • Introduced by Minister of State for Home Nityanand Rai.
    • Seeks to amend the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.
    • Extends penalties for insulting the National Flag, Constitution, and National Anthem to the National Song.
    • Opposition members argued that the Constituent Assembly intentionally did not accord the National Song the same constitutional status as the National Anthem.
    • The government cited Dr. Rajendra Prasad’s statement (24 January 1950) that both should enjoy equal respect.

    National Anthem

    • Jana Gana Mana, composed by Rabindranath Tagore.
    • Adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 24 January 1950.
    • Full rendition duration: 52 seconds.

    National Song

    • Vande Mataram, composed by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.
    • Taken from the novel Anandamath (1882).
    • Only the first two stanzas enjoy official status as the National Song.

    Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971

    • Prohibits insults to the National Flag, Constitution, and National Anthem.
    • Prescribes imprisonment up to 3 years, or fine, or both.
    • The 2026 Amendment Bill seeks to include the National Song within its ambit.

    [2023] Consider the following statements in respect of the National Flag of India according to the Flag Code of India, 2002:
    Statement-I: One of the standard sizes of the National Flag of India is 600 mm x 400 mm.
    Statement-II: The ratio of the length to the height (width) of the Flag shall be 3:2.
    Which one of the following is correcti in respect of the above statements?

    [A] Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-l.

    [B] Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I.

    [C] Statement-l is correct but Statement-II is incorrect is incorrect.

    [D] Statement-l is incorrect Statement-II is correct.

  • Zomato’s platform fee, delivery levy no abuse of dominance: CCI

    Why in News?

    The Competition Commission of India (CCI) ruled that Zomato’s platform fee, delivery charges, and commissions do not amount to abuse of dominant position or anti-competitive conduct.

    Key Highlights

    • CCI dismissed a consumer complaint against Zomato/Eternal over platform fees and price differences.
    • The higher online price was attributed to delivery charges, platform fee, and GST.
    • Restaurants stated that Zomato charges around 33% commission, leading some to increase online menu prices.
    • CCI held that online food delivery and in-person dining are distinct markets, making price differences commercially justifiable.
    • Mere price variation does not constitute an abuse of dominant position under competition law.

    Abuse of Dominant Position (Competition Act, 2002)

    • Dominance itself is not prohibited; only its abuse is.
    • Examples include:
      • Imposing unfair or discriminatory prices.
      • Limiting production or technical development.
      • Denying market access.
      • Leveraging dominance in one market to enter another.

    Competition Commission of India (CCI)

    • Statutory body established under the Competition Act, 2002.
    • Came into effect in 2009.
    • Objective: Prevent anti-competitive practices, prohibit abuse of dominant position, regulate combinations (mergers and acquisitions), and promote fair competition.

    PYQ (2023, GS2, 10 Marks) Discuss the role of the Competition Commission of India in containing the abuse of dominant position by the Multi-National Corporations in India. Refer to the recent decisions.

    [2022] With reference to foreign-owned e-commerce firms operating in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
    1. They can sell their own goods in addition to offering their platforms as market-places.
    2. The degree to which they can own big sellers on their platforms is limited.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

    [D] 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • India paid $15 bn of imports in rupees in March-May

    Why in News?

    RBI data shows a sharp rise in rupee-denominated import payments, driven mainly by increased Russian crude oil purchases.

    Key Highlights

    • India settled imports worth ₹1.38 lakh crore (about $14.6 billion) in rupees during March-May 2026, accounting for 7.1% of merchandise imports.
    • This is a sharp increase from ₹42,506 crore (2.4% of imports) in December 2025-February 2026.
    • Russian crude imports reached $17.13 billion, up 30% YoY, aided by temporary US sanctions waivers.
    • Rupee-settled imports have steadily increased:
      • 2023-24: ₹99,680 crore
      • 2024-25: ₹1.13 lakh crore
      • 2025-26: ₹1.72 lakh crore
    • India’s merchandise trade deficit stood at $119 billion in 2025-26.
    • Benefits of Rupee Trade Settlement:
      • Reduces dependence on the US dollar.
      • Saves foreign exchange reserves.
      • Lowers exchange rate risk and transaction costs.
      • Promotes internationalisation of the Indian rupee.
    • Challenges:
      • Limited acceptance of the rupee by trading partners.
      • Persistent trade deficits reduce the recycling of rupee balances.

    Rupee Trade Settlement Mechanism (2022)

    • Introduced by the RBI in July 2022.
    • Enables invoicing, payment, and settlement of international trade in Indian rupees through Special Rupee Vostro Accounts (SRVAs).
    • Aims to facilitate trade, reduce dollar dependence, and strengthen the rupee’s global use.

    PYQ (2015, GS3, 12.5 Marks) Craze for gold in Indians have led to a surge in import of gold in recent years and put pressure on balance of payments and external value of rupee. In view of this, examine the merits of Gold Monetization Scheme.

    [2022] With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements:
    1. An increase in Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER) indicates the appreciation of rupee.
    2. An increase in the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) indicates an improvement in trade competitiveness.
    3. An increasing trend in domestic inflation relative to inflation in other countries is likely to cause an increasing divergence between NEER and REER.
    Which of the above statements are correct?

    [A] 1 and 2 only

    [B] 1 and 2 only

    [C] 1 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3