An analysis of India’s port sector found capacity utilisation at about 60%, against a global benchmark of 70%, as Sagarmala 2.0 continues to expand port linked infrastructure.
Key Highlights
Port capacity utilisation stands at roughly 60%, below the 70% global benchmark.
Sagarmala 2.0 is the next phase of the Sagarmala Programme, aligned with the Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision (MAKV) 2047.
MAKV 2047 targets positioning India as a global maritime innovation hub.
Sagarmala Programme
Launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways.
Vision: Port-led development to accelerate economic growth and reduce logistics costs.
Four key pillars:
Port modernisation and new port development
Port connectivity enhancement
Port-led industrialisation
Coastal community development
[2026] Consider the following statements with reference to the Sagarmala Programme of the Government of India:
I. The Sagarmala Programme seeks to achieve port led economic growth through cost effective and sustainable coastal infrastructure.
II. The success of the Sagarmala Programme is reflected in significant growth in coastal and inland waterway shipping, along with improved global port rankings.
III. Sagarmala 2.0 aims to position India as a global maritime innovation hub aligned with Atmanirbhar Bharat and Viksit Bharat 2047 visions.
Which of the following relationships among the above statements is/are correct?
The Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) issued a 198 page guidance note on crypto asset reporting under the Income tax Act, 2025, aligned with the OECD’s Crypto Asset Reporting Framework (CARF).
Key Highlights
The guidance note runs to 198 pages and is issued under the Income tax Act, 2025.
It aligns India’s crypto asset reporting with the OECD’s Crypto Asset Reporting Framework (CARF).
The framework enables automatic global information exchange on crypto asset holdings starting next year.
[2016] With reference to ‘Bitcoins’, sometimes seen in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. Bitcoins are tracked by the Central Banks of the countries. 2. Anyone with a Bitcoin address can send and receive Bitcoins from anyone else with a Bitcoin address. 3. Online payments can be sent without either side knowing the identity of the other. Select the correct answer using the code given below.
NITI Aayog launched the Investment Friendliness Index (IFI) to assess and improve the investment ecosystem across States and UTs through competitive and cooperative federalism.
What is IFI?
A data driven index that benchmarks how effectively States and UTs attract and sustain investments by evaluating their policy, regulatory, institutional, and infrastructure ecosystem.
Background
Proposed after the 9th NITI Aayog Governing Council Meeting (2024).
Announced in the Union Budget 2025-26.
Key Features
Covers 28 States and 8 UTs.
Based on 84 indicators using: Secondary data and Investor perception survey.
Eight Pillars
Infrastructure. Business Climate, Resources, Government Policy, Regulatory Ease, Institutional Environment, Financial Health, and Environmental Resilience
Performance Categories
Top Performers: Above 50
Frontrunners: 45 to 50
Emerging Performers: 40 to <45
Aspiring States: Below 40
Top Performers
Overall: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Odisha.
Hilly & NE States: Uttarakhand.
UTs & City States: Goa.
Significance
Promotes competitive and cooperative federalism.
Encourages State level reforms and ease of investment.
Supports Viksit Bharat @2047 and Viksit Rajya @2047.
[2019] Which one of the following is not a sub-index of the World Bank’s ‘Ease of Doing Business Index’?
Padma Vibhushan awardee Teejan Bai (1956–2026), the foremost exponent of Pandavani, passed away at AIIMS Raipur. She played a pivotal role in taking Chhattisgarh’s traditional folk art to the global stage.
Key Highlights
Born in Ganiyari village (Durg district), Chhattisgarh.
Learned Pandavani from her maternal grandfather Brajlal Pardha and gave her first public performance at 13 years of age.
Broke gender barriers by performing in the Kapalika style, traditionally reserved for men.
Performed in over 17 countries, popularising Indian folk traditions worldwide.
Received the Padma Shri, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Vibhushan.
About Pandavani
A traditional folk storytelling and musical art form of Chhattisgarh.
Narrates episodes from the Mahabharata through singing, narration, acting, and dialogue.
The performer uses a tanpura (tambura) as both a musical instrument and a symbolic prop.
Two Styles of Pandavani
Vedamati Style: Performed while sitting, with greater emphasis on narration.
Kapalika Style: Performed while standing, combining dramatic acting, gestures, expressions, and dialogue.
[2014] A community of people called Manganiyars is well-known for their:
India’s drug regulator, the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO), has approved Qdenga, the country’s first dengue vaccine, after its licensing in over 40 countries and World Health Organisation (WHO) prequalification, arriving amid some of India’s worst dengue outbreaks.
Why was developing any dengue vaccine so difficult in the first place?
Four serotypes must be defeated at once: The four antigenically distinct dengue serotypes (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, DENV-4) require a vaccine to generate strong immunity against all four simultaneously.
The antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) risk: A second infection with a different serotype can cause more severe disease through antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), the mechanism that undermined the first licensed dengue vaccine, Dengvaxia, and led to the 2017 Philippines controversy.
Qdenga’s design choice: Developed by Japan-based Takeda, Qdenga differs from Dengvaxia and does not require prior screening for previous dengue infection before vaccination.
What specific gaps in Qdenga’s protection could undermine its rollout this monsoon?
Uneven serotype coverage: Protection is highest against DENV-2, followed by DENV-1, while uncertainty remains regarding DENV-3 and DENV-4 in seronegative individuals.
A rising mismatch: Although DENV-2 currently predominates in India, DENV-3 is increasing. If DENV-3 becomes dominant during the 2026 monsoon, the vaccine’s real-world effectiveness could decline, especially among those with no prior dengue exposure.
A dangerous timing gap:Qdenga requires two doses administered three months apart. The first dose provides uneven protection, leaving seronegative individuals vulnerable if exposed to DENV-3 before completing the vaccination schedule.
A specific trial finding on vulnerable children: The Tetravalent Immunization against Dengue Efficacy Study (TIDES) trial raised concerns about negative efficacy against hospitalisation related to DENV-3 among seronegative children who do not complete both doses.
Why is the vaccine’s price, not just its science, presented as the real barrier to protection?
The mobile workforce problem: Ensuring that migrant workers receive the second dose on schedule will be difficult, increasing the risk highlighted in the TIDES trial.
Tiered pricing risks excluding vulnerable groups: Under Takeda’s global tiered pricing strategy, Qdenga may remain unaffordable for residents of dense urban slums with poor drainage, who face the highest exposure to Aedes mosquitoes.
The Aedes mosquito’s changing range compounds the problem:Aedes mosquitoes are spreading into semi-urban and rural areas, making vector control more difficult and expanding the population requiring affordable vaccination.
Conclusion
The approval of Qdenga is a significant milestone in India’s fight against dengue, but its public health impact depends on addressing serotype-specific protection gaps, ensuring completion of the two-dose schedule, and making the vaccine affordable for high-risk populations. The editorial argues that price negotiations are essential for the vaccine to achieve meaningful public health outcomes.
Back2Basics
About Dengue:
Dengue (break-bone fever) is a viral infection that is spread from mosquitoes to people. It is more common in tropical and subtropical than in temperate climates.
Transmission: The dengue virus is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female mosquitoes, primarily the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Other species within the Aedes genus can also act as vectors, but their contribution is normally secondary to Aedes aegypti.
Human-to-mosquito transmission: Mosquitoes can become infected by people who are viremic with DENV. This can be someone who has a symptomatic dengue infection, someone who is yet to have a symptomatic infection (those who are pre-symptomatic), and also someone who shows no signs of illness (those who are asymptomatic).
Dengue Serotype
Four Types: The virus exists as four closely related strains: DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4.
Immunity: Catching one serotype gives you lifelong immunity to that specific type, but only short protection against the other three.
Severe Risk: Getting infected a second time by a different serotype can raise your chance of getting severe dengue.
Important Keywords:
Antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE): A phenomenon in which antibodies generated from a previous infection with one dengue serotype enhance, rather than prevent, severe disease during infection with a different serotype, making dengue vaccine development particularly challenging.
WHO prequalification: A World Health Organization (WHO) assessment that certifies a vaccine meets international standards of quality, safety, and efficacy, enabling procurement by governments and international agencies.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2022] What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines?
Linkage: The PYQ examines the science behind vaccine development and immunization, a core GS-3 Science & Technology theme. The article applies these principles to dengue, highlighting challenges of multi-serotype vaccines, ADE, efficacy, and rollout.
Of the 14 Indians killed in West Asia conflict-related attacks since 28 February, at least eight were seafarers. This exposes how India’s foreign policy apparatus treats its roughly 3.2 lakh seafarers as a shipping matter until a crisis turns them into a consular emergency.
Why does responsibility for an Indian seafarer’s safety become unclear at exactly the moment it matters most?
A single jurisdictional authority: A seafarer may be recruited in Mumbai, hired by a Singapore-based company, placed on a ship flagged to Panama, carrying Kuwaiti oil, and attacked off Oman, leaving no single authority fully responsible.
India’s consular system is organised by territory, but seafarers are not: A seafarer crosses multiple jurisdictions during a single voyage, and an Indian mission may not know a national is nearby until a ship is seized, abandoned, or attacked.
The scale problem: India’s seafarer workforce stands at about 3.2 lakh (June 2025), nearly three times its size in 2014. This makes India the second largest supplier of seafarers globally after the Philippines, according to the 2026 Seafarer Workforce Report.
Abandonment data confirms the gap is systemic:International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF) data show 1,125 Indian seafarers were abandoned in 2025. This was the highest for any country, with responsibility split among the flag state, port authority, shipowner, insurer, and Indian mission.
What has the government actually done, and where does it fall short?
The Seafarer First response: Introduced after the recent West Asia strikes, it includes a dashboard tracking ships, threats, and crew welfare, along with a liaison officer for each affected family.
A targeted precaution: On 15 July, the government advised shipowners, managers, and recruitment agencies to avoid deploying Indian seafarers on vessels transiting the Strait of Hormuz until further orders.
An existing but narrow enforcement tool: The Directorate General of Shipping (DGS) order of 14 May bars licensed recruitment agencies from placing seafarers on 366 vessels linked to crew abandonment, unless compliance conditions are met. However, seafarers currently have to search for the list themselves before accepting employment.
The dashboard’s structural limit: It can track ships, but cannot compel a flag state or shipowner to act, nor secure access to a detained seafarer.
What would closing the gap actually require?
A standing maritime consular protocol: Clearly defining institutional responsibility from the moment a distress signal is received, instead of responding only after a crisis unfolds.
Designated port-level officers: Indian missions at major shipping hubs should have officers familiar with port authorities, hospitals, insurers, and legal systems before emergencies arise.
Multilateral pressure on flag states:India, the Philippines, and Indonesia could jointly push through the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) for stronger standards on legal assistance and repatriation.
A seafarer’s right to know before signing: Mandatory disclosure of a vessel’s true ownership, sanctions status, insurance validity, and history of crew abandonment, along with the right to refuse deployment to high-risk regions without penalty.
Conclusion
India’s maritime ambitions extend beyond ports, shipping, and naval power. Protecting the country’s 3.2 lakh seafarers requires a permanent maritime consular framework, stronger international cooperation, and greater legal safeguards. India’s responsibility to its citizens should not end with a foreign flag on the vessel.
Back2Basics
Flag of Convenience (FoC): The practice of registering a merchant ship in a country other than that of its owners to benefit from lower taxes or lighter regulations, often complicating legal accountability for crew welfare.
Maritime Labour Convention (MLC), 2006: An International Labour Organization (ILO) convention that establishes minimum global standards for seafarers’ working and living conditions, including wages, health protection, and repatriation rights.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2025] Why is maritime security vital to protect India’s sea trade? Discuss maritime and coastal security challenges and the way forward.
Linkage: The PYQ examines India’s maritime security, sea trade, and challenges in protecting maritime interests. The article extends maritime security beyond naval issues to the safety, consular protection, and welfare of Indian seafarers during international crises.
USA’s decision to sign a civil nuclear cooperation agreement with Saudi Arabia marks a significant shift in Middle East geopolitics. In this context, many argue that India should accelerate its own nuclear export readiness in response.
What is the substance of the US-Saudi agreement, and why is it controversial?
The core deal: The agreement would help Saudi Arabia build a civilian nuclear energy programme and reduce dependence on hydrocarbons, with American companies building Saudi reactors to secure a long term position in the kingdom’s nuclear infrastructure.
The enrichment controversy: The main point of contention is the possibility of a uranium enrichment facility in Saudi Arabia, even as Washington seeks to roll back Iran’s nuclear capabilities, creating an apparent contradiction.
The strategic rationale behind the contradiction: The rise of Iran’s regional influence has pushed the UAE towards its own civilian nuclear programme; a Saudi facility built and supervised by American companies is presented as reducing proliferation risk while giving Riyadh strategic parity with Tehran.
Congressional and diplomatic hurdles: The agreement faces scrutiny in the US Congress and opposition from Israel’s supporters and the non-proliferation community.
How is the nuclear deal linked to the broader regional diplomatic picture?
Tied to Israel normalisation:Washington is linking the nuclear deal to Saudi recognition of Israel, which Riyadh has so far declined under the Abraham Accords framework.
A triangular negotiation: The agreement could become part of a broader negotiation among USA, Saudi Arabia, and Israel covering regional security, Palestinian statehood, and the future of Arab-Israeli relations.
Where does India stand in this emerging nuclear industrial competition, and what does the editorial recommend?
India is largely absent: This reflects decades of resistance within India’s atomic energy sector to reforms enabling export-oriented industrial participation.
The editorial’s recommendation: The US-Saudi deal should accelerate implementation of India’s SHANTI Act framework to prepare Indian industry for exporting nuclear technology across the Middle East.
A call for political support:India should support the US-Saudi agreement, provided it is backed by strong non-proliferation safeguards, and should offer assistance to Saudi Arabia’s civilian nuclear programme.
Conclusion
The US-Saudi nuclear agreement reflects USA’s use of civil nuclear cooperation as a tool of regional strategic balancing, linking energy security, non-proliferation, and Saudi-Israel normalisation. For India, it is a strategic opportunity to strengthen its civil nuclear industry and emerge as a future nuclear technology exporter.
Back2Basics
SHANTI Act, 2025: A proposed legislative reform intended to open India’s civil nuclear sector to private and foreign investment in reactor construction and technology exports, reducing the traditional state monopoly in atomic energy.
Abraham Accords: The 2020 diplomatic framework under which several Arab states normalised relations with Israel. Saudi Arabia has not yet joined the framework.
PYQ RELEVANCE
[UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?
Linkage: The PYQ examines the geopolitical implications of nuclear diplomacy in West Asia and its impact on India’s strategic interests. The article analyses the proposed US-Saudi civil nuclear agreement, its implications for regional power balance, nuclear non-proliferation, and India’s strategic and nuclear diplomacy in West Asia.
The Trump administration began imposing permanent tariffs under Section 301 of the US Trade Act, 1974 on 60 trading partners after its earlier International Emergency Economic Powers Act(IEEPA) tariffs were struck down by the US Supreme Court. This places India in a more favorable bracket than China and Vietnam even as such tariffs function as domestic politics rather than sound economics.
How does the new four tier tariff structure actually work, and where does India sit in it?
Legal foundation shift: The administration is rebuilding the tariff regime under Section 301 of the Trade Act, 1974 (targeting alleged forced labour in imports) after its International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) tariffs were declared illegal by the US Supreme Court in February.
The four tiers: The most favourable group (EU, Taiwan) faces a Section 301 tariff calculated only to bring the total to 10% where the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) rate is below that; the second tier, including India and 16 others such as Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Canada, and Mexico, faces a flat additional 10%; the third tier (Japan, South Korea, Switzerland) faces a flat 12.5%; the least favourable tier of 38 countries, including China and Vietnam, also faces a flat 12.5%.
India’s rate fell during negotiation: India’s tariff dropped from 12.5% first proposed in March to 10%, after India amended its Foreign Trade Policy on 14 June to explicitly ban imports made using forced labour.
India’s export performance defied predictions: Despite tariff measures since early 2025, India’s merchandise exports to the US grew 0.9% (from US$86.5 billion to US$87.3 billion) in 2025-26, according to an ICRIER report, though this was driven entirely by products on the US exclusion list (pharmaceuticals and electronics), while non-excluded exports fell 11.2%.
What is the real reason the USTR gives for the tariffs, and is that reason coherent?
The stated aim: The US Trade Representative (USTR) says countries that import forced labour goods gain an unfair cost advantage, harming American workers.
The geopolitical tell: All 60 countries under investigation were found “guilty,” with the most favourable grouping being the EU and Taiwan and the least favourable being China and Vietnam, a grouping that tracks geopolitical alignment more than measurable differences in forced labour enforcement.
The stated target is explicit: The tariffs are primarily meant to force countries to reduce dependence on China, with which the US is engaged in a trade war.
New textile quotas complicate India’s advantage:Tariff Rate Quotas (TRQs) granted to Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Malaysia for importing US cotton could divert textile and apparel sourcing away from India, despite its overall favourable tariff position.
Why do tariffs persist as policy despite weak economic evidence for them?
Tariffs function as a domestic tax, not a foreign penalty: Research by economists Mary Amiti, David Weinstein, and Stephen Redding shows tariff costs are largely borne by American businesses and consumers through higher prices, not by foreign producers.
Global supply chains blunt the intended effect: More than half of global trade consists of intermediate goods; tariffs on inputs such as steel or electronics raise costs for the very domestic manufacturers they are intended to protect.
Trade deficits have not shrunk: The US continues to run a record merchandise trade deficit despite successive tariff rounds, since deficits are driven by savings, investment, and consumption, not tariffs, while global supply chains have rerouted through Vietnam, Mexico, and other intermediary economies.
The political logic that survives the economic failure: Every successful political narrative needs someone to blame, someone to protect, and a visible policy action signalling resolve; tariffs provide all three even when they fail economically, whereas structural reforms require patience and produce fewer immediate political gains.
Conclusion
India’s tariff position is more favourable than China’s or Vietnam’s largely due to geopolitical considerations presented through the language of forced labour, rather than a consistent trade policy standard. At the same time, while India may benefit in the short term from trade diversion, new textile sourcing quotas for competing countries could reduce that advantage over the longer term.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2018] What are the key areas of reform if the WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’, especially keeping in mind the interest of India?
Linkage: The PYQ examines the implications of global trade wars, protectionism, WTO reforms, and India’s trade interests in the evolving international trading system. The article analyses the new US tariff regime, its geopolitical and economic motivations, its implications for the multilateral trading order, and the opportunities and challenges it creates for India’s exports and trade strategy.
With the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls underway, Bengaluru’s Booth Level Officers (BLOs) and voters are struggling to reconcile 2002 records against a city transformed by two decades of migration and urbanisation. This exposes gaps in the exercise’s design.
Why is Bengaluru’s SIR harder to execute than the Election Commission’s own justification would suggest?
The Commission’s stated rationale is also the source of the problem: The Election Commission of India (ECI) says SIR is needed because urbanisation and migration have altered the electoral rolls; those very factors make verification difficult.
Scale of the exercise:Bengaluru has over 1.03 crore voters, about one-sixth of Karnataka’s 5.54 crore electorate, verified by 8,972 Booth Level Officers (BLOs) drawn from nearly every government department.
A city transformed since the last revision: Areas such as Whitefield and Mahadevapura were not major urban corridors in 2002, and Assembly constituencies have since been redrawn.
What specific implementation gaps are voters and BLOs facing?
A language barrier baked into the form:Karnataka’s enumeration forms are printed only in Kannada, unlike Telangana, which provides Telugu, English, and Urdu forms in the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) area.
Documentation breaks for migrants and gig workers:Migrant workers, gig workers, and residents of slum settlements face repeated form rejections, especially when they maintain permanent residence elsewhere or fear losing welfare benefits linked to voter identity documents.
Uneven institutional response: The State Government’s doorstep delivery of Permanent Residence Certificates (PRCs) and caste certificates has not resolved uncertainty because election authorities have not clarified whether a PRC alone is sufficient during the claims and objections stage.
A precedent that narrows, not widens, acceptance: In West Bengal’s SIR, Electoral Registration Officers (EROs) accepted only PRCs issued under the 1999 Rules, not all PRCs.
Why do the officially reported numbers understate the exercise’s real difficulty?
Distribution numbers can mislead:Additional District Election Officers noted that BLOs sometimes deliver forms to multiple addresses of suspected duplicate voters because they cannot verify the person’s actual residence, inflating the ASDDO (Absent, Shifted, Duplicate, Dead, Other) category.
Digitisation, not distribution, is the real progress marker: As of 22 July, only 31.28% of forms within the Greater Bengaluru Authority had been digitised, compared with 67.23% statewide, despite 25.47 lakh voters already being flagged under the ASDDO category.
BLOs report pressure to inflate completion, not accuracy: Officials stated that BLOs face pressure from Booth Level Agents (BLAs) and Electoral Registration Officers (EROs) to complete digitisation, regardless of whether the underlying data is accurate.
Conclusion
Bengaluru’s SIR challenges reflect a design problem, not merely a data entry problem. The same migration, urbanisation, and demographic churn cited by the Election Commission to justify the revision also make it difficult to accurately verify a mobile, multilingual, and undocumented population within a fixed timeline. The central question is whether success should be measured by timely completion or by the accuracy of electoral rolls.
Back2Basics
Special Intensive Revision (SIR): A comprehensive Election Commission of India (ECI) exercise to re-verify and update electoral rolls from the ground up, distinct from the routine summary revision.
Booth Level Officer (BLO): A government employee assigned to a specific polling booth area, responsible for door to door verification, form distribution, and updating electoral rolls during revision exercises.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2024] Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggested by various committees with particular reference to “One Nation, One Election” principle.
Linkage: The PYQ examines the need for electoral reforms to strengthen the integrity, inclusiveness, and credibility of India’s electoral process. The article highlights implementation challenges in the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls, underscoring the need for voter registration and roll management reforms
Amid ongoing youth protests demanding education reform and Education Minister Dharmendra Pradhan’s resignation, data analysis shows the decline in education spending is not confined to the Union Budget. In fact, State Governments’ own education spending share has fallen too over the same period.
Why does state level spending matter when education policy debates usually focus on the Centre?
Concurrent subject:Education is in the Concurrent List (Seventh Schedule), so both the Union and State Governments can legislate and spend on it.
The Centre’s own decline: The Education Ministry’s share of the Union Budget fell from 4.6% (2013-14) to 2.5% (2025-26).
The national state average mirrors it: The average share of all States’ and Union Territories’ expenditure devoted to education fell from around 17% (2013-14), tracking the same downward trend as the Centre’s budget share.
What does the state level data reveal about educational outcomes?
Bihar versus Kerala:Bihar’s Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at the secondary level is 45, against Kerala’s 94, confirming long held differences in educational outcomes.
GER as a measure of distance to travel:Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is the number of students enrolled in a given education level, regardless of age, divided by the official age-group population for that level and multiplied by 100; a low GER indicates how far a state is from achieving adequate educational coverage.
Spending share does not track outcome:Kerala and Tamil Nadu, despite strong GER, spend a lower share of their budgets on education than the national average, while Bihar and Delhi spend higher shares, showing that budget share alone does not explain educational outcomes.
Is there an exception that breaks the declining trend?
Delhi under the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP): Between 2014-15 and 2024-25, Delhi’s education spending share increased sharply even as the national average declined, reflecting a government that prioritised health and education.
Kerala and Tamil Nadu have converged toward, then fallen behind, the national average:Kerala allocated a higher than average share until 2020 (COVID-19 period) and has lagged since; Tamil Nadu broadly tracked and later fell slightly below the national average over the long term.
Conclusion
The decline in India’s education spending is a joint Centre-State phenomenon, not solely a Union Government decision. The exception of Delhi’s rising education expenditure under a government that made education a political priority suggests the decline reflects policy choices, not an unavoidable trend. The findings therefore distribute responsibility for India’s education outcomes across both levels of government.
Back2Basics
Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER): The total enrolment in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the official age group for that level; a key indicator of the reach of the education system.
Concurrent List: The list of subjects under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India on which both Parliament and State Legislatures can make laws. In case of inconsistency, Parliamentary law prevails under Article 254.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2022] The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 remains inadequate in promoting incentive-based system for children’s education without generating awareness about the importance of schooling. Analyse.
Linkage: The PYQ examines challenges in implementing the Right to Education through adequate public investment, equitable access, and improved educational outcomes. The article highlights declining education expenditure by both the Centre and States, raising concerns over financing and effective implementation of the Right to Education.
