Why in the news

• India abstained from voting on a UN General Assembly draft resolution on Islamophobia introduced by Pakistan and co-sponsored by China.
• India asserted that while condemning all acts of religious discrimination, it’s crucial to recognize religiophobia against various faiths rather than singling out one religion.

 What is UN General Assembly?

• The UNGA is the main policy-making organ of the United Nations, founded in 1945.
• It serves as a forum for all Member States to discuss and make recommendations on a wide range of international issues covered by the UN Charter.
• The UNGA is the only universally representative body of the UN, focusing on topics like international peace and security, development, disarmament, human rights, and international law.

Members/Observers

• The UNGA comprises all Member States, with each having an equal vote in the assembly. It elects non-permanent members of the Security Council, appoints the Secretary-General, and approves the UN budget.
• It has granted observer status to international organizations, entities, and non-member states, allowing them to participate in its work with certain limitations.
• Notable observers include the European Union, the Holy See, and the State of Palestine.

Functions

• The UNGA discusses, debates, and makes recommendations on various international issues within its competence, including political, economic, humanitarian, social, and legal matters.
• It plays a central role in standard-setting, codification of international law, and making recommendations to promote international political cooperation.
• It has the power to

1. Consider and approve the UN budget,
2. Elect non-permanent members of the Security Council, and
3. Make recommendations on maintaining international peace and security, disarmament, and other matters outlined in the UN Charter.

What are UNGA Resolutions?

• A UNGA resolution is a formal expression of the General Assembly’s opinion, will, or intention on various matters of global significance.
• UNGA resolutions are adopted through a voting process during plenary sessions of the General Assembly.
• Each member state has one vote, and decisions are typically made by a two-thirds majority of those present and voting.
• While UNGA resolutions are not legally binding on their own, they can influence the development of customary international law and provide guidance for the interpretation of treaties and conventions.
• Types of Resolutions:

1. 1. Binding Resolutions: Some resolutions are legally binding on member states, requiring them to take specific actions or comply with certain obligations.
   2. Non-binding Resolutions: Many resolutions are non-binding, serving as recommendations, expressions of concern, or statements of principle. While non-binding, these resolutions carry significant political weight and influence.

PYQ:

With reference to the United Nations General Assembly, consider the following statements:

1. The UN General Assembly can grant observer status to the non-member States.
2. Inter-governmental organisations can seek observer status in the UN General Assembly.
3. Permanent Observers in the UN General Assembly can maintain missions at the UN headquarters.

Which of the statements given above are correct? (2022)

1. 1 and 2 only
2. 2 and 3 only
3. 1 and 3 only
4. 1, 2 and 3

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Central Idea

• On this day in 1945, the United Nations (UN) was established amid a backdrop of global turmoil, emerging from the shadows of two devastating world wars.
• This article traces the birth of the UN, its historical evolution, and highlights both its notable achievements and challenges.

Birth of the UN

• Post-World War Turmoil: Following the devastation of both World War I and World War II, global powers were grappling with the need for a more effective international organization to prevent future conflicts.
• Predecessor: The League of Nations, established in 1919 after World War I, laid the foundation for the UN’s creation but faltered during World War II.
• The Atlantic Charter: In August 1941, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and UK PM Winston Churchill issued the Atlantic Charter, an affirmation that paved the way for the UN. It articulated shared principles for a better world.
• Birth of the Term ‘UN’: The term ‘UN’ was first coined by President Roosevelt in 1941 to identify the Allied nations against the axis powers.
• Declaration of the UN: On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 Allied nations gathered in Washington DC to sign the Declaration of the UN, outlining the war objectives of the Allied powers. India, under British colonial rule, was among these nations.

Inception and Charter

• Formation and Ratification: The UN officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, with ratification by 51 nations, including five permanent members (France, Republic of China, Soviet Union, UK, and US).
• General Assembly Inauguration: The first meeting of the General Assembly took place on January 10, 1946.
• UN’s Core Goals: The UN was founded on four key goals: maintaining international peace and security, fostering friendly relations among nations, promoting international cooperation in problem-solving, and coordinating global actions toward common objectives.

Evolution and Impact

• Membership Growth: Initially comprised of 51 member states, the UN’s membership expanded as independence movements and decolonization unfolded. Today, it boasts 193 member countries.
• Broadened Scope: Over 75 years, the UN has tackled numerous global issues, including health, environment, and women’s empowerment.

Achievements of the UN

• Peace and Security: Prevented conflicts, mediated peace agreements, and conducted peacekeeping missions in places like Bosnia and Kosovo.
• Humanitarian Aid: Provided vital aid through agencies like WFP and UNICEF, offering food, shelter, and healthcare during crises.
• Human Rights: Established the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and monitors violations globally through mechanisms like the Human Rights Council.
• Health: Led efforts against diseases like smallpox and HIV/AIDS through WHO, addressing current threats like COVID-19.
• Refugee Support: UNHCR aids refugees and internally displaced persons while advocating for their rights.
• Environmental Advocacy: Raised awareness about climate change, negotiated the Paris Agreement, and promotes sustainability via UNEP.

Failures and Criticisms of the UN

• Genocide Prevention: Failed to prevent genocides like Rwanda and Srebrenica despite early warnings.
• Peacekeeping Challenges: Faced issues like misconduct allegations and difficulties in halting violence in missions like South Sudan.
• Veto Powers: Criticized for Security Council veto powers that hinder action and maintain power imbalances.
• Enforcement Limits: Reliant on member states for enforcement, leading to limited action in cases of non-compliance, as seen in the Iraq War.
• Lack of Representation: Critiqued for underrepresenting Global South countries in key decision-making bodies.
• Neoliberal Influence: Accused of promoting neoliberal economic policies, which can exacerbate inequalities, through associated organizations like the World Bank and IMF.

Future Plan

• 2020 Declaration: In a high-level UN General Assembly meeting commemorating 75 years of the UN, a declaration was adopted outlining goals for the next decade. These include protecting the environment, promoting peace, gender equality, digital cooperation, and sustainable financing.
• Decade of Action: The next ten years, designated as the “decade of action and delivery for sustainable development,” are considered critical for addressing global challenges, especially in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusion

• The UN, born out of the ashes of conflict, has played a significant role in shaping the world’s course over the past 75 years.
• Its journey has been marked by both notable achievements and formidable challenges.
• As it enters a new decade with a renewed commitment to global betterment, the UN continues to evolve as a pivotal force in promoting international cooperation and addressing humanity’s most pressing issues.

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Central Idea

• The Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) or the High Seas Treaty was adopted by the UN on June 19.
• It became the third agreement under UNCLOS, following the establishment of the International Seabed Authority (ISB) and the Fish Stocks Agreement (FSA).

BBNJ/ High Seas Treaty

• The idea of protecting the marine environment emerged in 2002, leading to the recognition of the need for an agreement in 2008.
• In 2015, the UN General Assembly formed a Preparatory Committee to create the treaty.
• Intergovernmental conferences (IGC) were held, resulting in the adoption of the treaty in 2023.
• The treaty’s objective is to implement international regulations for the protection of marine life beyond national jurisdiction through international cooperation.

Key Provisions of Treaty

(1) Marine Protected Areas:

• The treaty establishes marine protected areas to safeguard the oceans from human activities.
• Decisions on protected areas require a “three-quarter majority vote” to prevent obstruction by a few parties.

(2) Sharing Benefits from Marine Genetic Resources:

• The treaty mandates sharing scientific information and monetary benefits through a “clear house mechanism.”
• The mechanism ensures open access to information on marine protected areas, marine genetic resources, and area-based management tools.

(3) Capacity Building and Marine Technology:

• The treaty emphasizes capacity building and the use of marine technology for environmental impact assessment.
• The Scientific and Technical Body will create standards and guidelines, assisting countries with limited capacity in carrying out assessments.

Challenges and Controversies

(1) Marine Genetic Resources:

• The issue of sharing and exchanging information on marine genetic resources was a contentious point during negotiations.
• Debates focused on monitoring information sharing and the potential hindrance to bioprospecting research.

(2) Definition and Language:

• The use of phrases like “promote” or “ensure” in different parts of the treaty, particularly regarding benefit sharing, sparked heated debates.

(3) Adjacency Issue:

• Negotiations were prolonged due to the need for provisions allowing coastal states to exercise sovereign rights over seabed and subsoil in areas beyond their jurisdiction.
• The interests of landlocked and distant states further complicated decision-making.

Opposition to the Treaty

• Several developed countries opposed the treaty due to their support for private entities involved in advanced research and development of marine technology.
• Russia and China also expressed reservations, with Russia ultimately withdrawing during the final stage of consensus building, arguing that the treaty lacks a balance between conservation and sustainability.

Significance of the treaty

(1) Environmental Preservation:

• The High Seas Treaty is crucial for protecting marine biodiversity and addressing pressing issues such as overfishing and pollution.
• It represents a significant step towards international cooperation in preserving the health and sustainability of our oceans.

(2) Global Cooperation and Research:

• The treaty promotes the sharing of scientific information and encourages collaboration among countries.
• This will foster research initiatives and facilitate a better understanding of marine ecosystems, leading to more effective conservation measures.

Conclusion

• The adoption of the High Seas Treaty marks a significant milestone in international efforts to protect marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdictions.
• While challenges and controversies prolonged the negotiation process, the treaty sets the stage for enhanced global cooperation and the implementation of regulations to safeguard our oceans for future generations.

Back2Basics:

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Central Idea

• The Intergovernmental Negotiations Framework (IGN) meetings, which aim to reform the United Nations Security Council, are now being webcasted for the first time in history.

What is IGN?

• The Intergovernmental Negotiations framework (IGN) is a collective effort by various nation-states within the United Nations to advance the reform of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
• This article provides an overview of the composition of the IGN and highlights the progress made in achieving consensus among its members.

Evolution of the Reform Agenda

• The issue of reforming the UN Security Council has been under discussion since 1993, with successive reports published in 2001 and 2007.
• The current agenda for this issue within the UN General Assembly can be accessed online.

Composition of the IGN

• The IGN consists of several international organizations representing different perspectives on UN Security Council reform, including:

1. African Union
2. G4 nations (Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan)
3. Uniting for Consensus Group (UfC), also known as the “Coffee Club”
4. 69 Group of Developing Countries
5. Arab League
6. Caribbean Community (CARICOM)

• Each group presents unique positions regarding the reform of the UN Security Council, reflecting the diverse interests and perspectives of its member states.

Establishment of Consensus

• On July 27, 2016, the United Nations General Assembly adopted an “oral decision” by general acclamation, approving the “elements of convergence” declaration.
• This declaration outlined the status of the consensus achieved by the IGN members at that time.

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Central Idea

• India, as one of the largest troop-contributing nations to United Nations Peacekeeping (UNPK) operations, is taking steps to empower and support women personnel from Southeast Asia in peacekeeping efforts.

India-ASEAN Initiative for Women in UNPK Operations

• Defence Minister proposed this initiative last year to strengthen India-ASEAN defence cooperation.
• Tailor-made courses for women peacekeepers from ASEAN member-states will be conducted at the Centre for United Nations Peacekeeping (CUNPK) in India.
• Twenty peacekeepers, two from each country, will receive training in various aspects of peacekeeping.
• A “Table Top Exercise” focusing on UNPK challenges will be held in December, specifically designed for women officers from ASEAN.

India’s Training and Capacity Building

• The Indian Army has established the Centre for United Nations Peacekeeping (CUNPK) in New Delhi, which trains over 12,000 troops annually in peacekeeping operations.
• The CUNPK hosts foreign delegations, shares best practices, and dispatches mobile training teams to Friendly Foreign Countries for capacity building in UNPK.
• India has deployed Female Engagement Teams, Women Military Police, and women staff officers and military observers in various UN missions.
• India has the second-largest women contingent in the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and UN Interim Security Force for Abyei.

What is United Nations Peacekeeping?

• UN Peacekeeping helps countries navigate the difficult path from conflict to peace.
• UN peacekeepers are often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel.

UN Peacekeeping is guided by three basic principles:

1. Consent of the parties
2. Impartiality
3. Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate

UNPKF in operation

• Since 1948, UN Peacekeepers have undertaken 71 Field Missions.
• There are approximately 81,820 personnel serving on 13 peace operations led by UNDPO, in four continents currently.
• This represents a nine-fold increase since 1999.
• A total of 119 countries have contributed military and police personnel to UN peacekeeping.
• Currently, 72,930 of those serving are troops and military observers, and about 8,890 are police personnel.

Why UN Peacekeeping is needed?

• Conflict resolution: UN peacekeeping missions play a crucial role in assisting host countries in transitioning from conflict to peace.
• Burden sharing: UN peacekeeping utilizes a global coalition of troops and police to share the responsibility of maintaining peace and stability worldwide.
• Democratization: Peacekeepers provide security and political support to facilitate the early transition to peace and support democratic processes in post-conflict countries.

India’s Contribution to UN Peacekeeping

• Largest troop contributor: India has a long-standing history of contributing personnel to UN peacekeeping missions, with over 253,000 Indians serving in 49 out of 71 missions.
• Current deployments: Approximately 5,500 Indian troops and police are deployed in UN peacekeeping missions, ranking India as the fifth-highest troop-contributing country.
• Women in Indian Peacekeeping: India has played a pioneering role in deploying women peacekeepers, starting with an all-women contingent to Liberia in 2007.
• Humanitarian services: Indian peacekeepers also provide medical care, veterinary support, and engineering services to communities in need.

Issues with UN Peacekeeping

[A] Issues for India

• Kashmir interference: India has expressed discontent with the UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) operating in Kashmir, considering it irrelevant after the Shimla Agreement.
• Disregard for India-Pak ceasefire: UNMOGIP continues to observe hostilities and ceasefire violations along the Line of Control, which India believes is unnecessary.

[B] Global Challenges

• Diverse security challenges: UN peacekeeping operations need to adapt to rapidly evolving security dynamics.
• Resource allocation: Mandates of peacekeeping missions should align with available resources.
• Greater involvement of troop-contributing countries: Countries providing troops and police should have a meaningful role in mission planning.
• Investment in peacebuilding: Adequate financial and human resources are required for post-conflict peacebuilding.

Way Forward

• UNSC reform: Reform the UN Security Council to reflect the changing global landscape.
• Multi-partner collaboration: Enhance effectiveness by involving actors beyond the UNSC in counterterrorism efforts.
• Modernization of peacekeeping: Strengthen UN Peacekeeping Forces through modernization and inclusivity.
• Human-centric decision-making: Promote accountability and transparency in the UNSC’s decision-making processes.

Conclusion

• India’s commitment to promoting women’s participation in UNPK operations underscores its dedication to global peace and security.
• These initiatives aim to enhance the capabilities and representation of women in peacekeeping, recognizing their valuable contributions to maintaining peace and stability worldwide.

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Central Idea: The article provides an explanation of the UN Democracy Fund (UNDEF), its history and objectives, as well as the involvement of India and the United States in its establishment.

Why in news?

• There is a controversy surrounding the fund’s support for NGOs funded by George Soros, who is on a watchlist in India.
• He had alleged the Adani turmoil will weaken Indian politics and lead to a “democratic revival” in the country.

What is UN Democracy Fund?

• The UNDEF was established in 2005 with an initial contribution of $10 million each from the United States and India.
• Its aim is to support projects that strengthen the voice and participation of civil society, promote human rights, and encourage the development of democratic institutions and processes.
• It is funded entirely by voluntary contributions from member states and is governed by an advisory board composed of 16 members representing different regions of the world.

Role in promoting democracy and civil society

• UNDEF’s mission is to support projects that strengthen the voice and participation of civil society, promote human rights, and encourage the development of democratic institutions and processes.
• The fund solicits and receives up to 3,000 proposals from NGOs around the world each year.
• An advisory board considers these proposals and recommends proposals for approval by the Secretary-General.
• Between 30 to 50 projects are chosen every year, and in 15 rounds of funding so far, UNDEF has supported over 880 two-year projects in more than 130 countries.

India’s involvement in the governance of UNDEF

• India has been a member of the UNDEF advisory board since the fund’s inception.
• The board is composed of 16 members representing different regions of the world, and it includes the eight largest member state contributors and six other states to reflect diverse geographical representation, including one “small island” and developing states.
• It also has two individual members and two CSOs.
• The CSOs currently serving on the board include CIVICUS and Transparency, Accountability and Participation Network.

India’s involvement in the establishment of UNDEF

• India played a key role in the establishment of UNDEF as it was one of the founding members of the fund.
• In 2005, India’s then PM, Manmohan Singh, and US President George W. Bush announced the US-India Global Democracy Initiative, which included support for the UNDEF.
• India has contributed to the fund on several occasions since its inception, although its contributions have decreased in recent years.

Contradictions with UNDEF

• India’s relationship with UNDEF has been marked by contradictions.
• While India has supported the fund and contributed to it, it has also put George Soros on a watchlist in India while UNDEF has no objections to the fund giving grants to NGOs funded by Soros.
• This underscores a contradiction between the imperatives of the Modi government’s high table diplomacy and its domestic political ideology.
• It requires only Delhi to deploy a soft touch in the former while playing hardball at home for domestic audiences.

India’s contribution so far

• India has contributed to UNDEF on several occasions since its inception, although its contributions have decreased in recent years.
• India gave $5 million to the fund in 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009 and 2011, but no contribution was made in 2007 and 2010.
• The contributions began dipping from 2012, with the amount being $4.71 million that year.
• In 2014, India slashed its funding, contributing only $200,000 that year and in 2015.
• In 2016, it was a mere $50,000, and no contribution was made in 2017.
• In 2018 and 2019, India was back with $100,000, and in 2020, 2021 and 2022, it gave $150,000.

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For the first time, United Nations members have agreed for an early conclusion of the International Legally Binding Instrument of BBNJ under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

Background

• The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was established in 1994 before marine biodiversity became a well-established concept
• An updated framework to protect marine life in the high seas had been in discussions for over 20 years.
• BBNJ is an agreement that aims to protect marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ).
• ABNJ refers to the high seas, which are not governed by any country but are still important for global biodiversity.

What is the BBNJ treaty?

• The BBNJ Treaty also called the Treaty of the High Seas, is an international agreement that aims to preserve and sustainably use the marine biodiversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction.
• This includes the high seas, which are outside of countries’ exclusive economic zones and makeup nearly half of the Earth’s surface.
• These areas are currently poorly regulated and only 1% of them are protected.
• The High Ambition Coalition on BBNJ was launched in February 2022 to negotiate and achieve a comprehensive and ambitious outcome.

Key areas of agreement

The negotiations focus on elements agreed upon such as the-

1. Conservation and sustainable use of marine genetic resources,
2. Area-based management tools like marine protected areas,
3. Environmental impact assessments, and
4. Capacity-building and technology transfer

Consensus reached

• A new body will be created to manage the conservation of ocean life and establish marine protected areas in the high seas
• The treaty establishes ground rules for conducting environmental impact assessments for commercial activities in the oceans
• Several marine species, including dolphins, whales, sea turtles, and many fish, make long annual migrations, crossing national borders and the high seas

What is the significance of this treaty?

• Beyond jurisdiction coverage: BBNJ refers to the areas beyond the jurisdiction of any single country, such as the high seas, the deep sea floor, and the international seabed area. These areas are critical for the health of the ocean, the well-being of coastal people, and the overall sustainability of the planet.
• Covers entire oceans: BBNJ comprises 95% of the ocean and provides invaluable ecological, economic, social, cultural, scientific, and food-security benefits to humanity.
• Hard-arrived consensus: BBNJ is governed by a patchwork of international agreements, conventions, and bodies, but there is no single comprehensive framework that regulates activities in these areas.

Various threats

• BBNJ, despite its resilience in the past, is currently at risk due to several emerging dangers such as pollution, overexploitation, and the observable consequences of climate change.
• In the future, the escalating need for marine resources, whether for food, minerals, or biotechnology, may intensify these issues.
• For example, deep-sea mining, where valuable metals are extracted from the ocean floor, is becoming more prevalent despite the fact that little is known about the biodiversity in these areas.

Why protect deep seas?

• The deep seafloors, believed to be the harshest habitat, are also facing the extinction process.
• A recent study assessed 184 species of Molluscs in the deep sea and found that 62% are listed as threatened: 39 are critically endangered, 32 are endangered and 43 are vulnerable.
• Yet, the International Seabed Authority, a Jamaica-based intergovernmental body, is allowing deep-sea mining contracts.

Way forward

Ans. Create legally binding instrument

• To address these threats, there is a need for a legally binding instrument for BBNJ.
• The instrument would provide a framework for the conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ and would address gaps in the current international legal regime.
• The legally binding instrument would establish a mechanism for the conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ, including measures to protect biodiversity, manage human activities, and ensure the equitable sharing of benefits.
• It would also provide for capacity-building and technology transfer to support the implementation of these measures.

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