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Day: October 30, 2025

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

[30th October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A decade after Paris Accord, an unstoppable transition

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

Linkage: The question provides a thematic continuum from Kyoto-Paris-Post-Paris climate architecture, illustrating the evolution of global carbon governance and collective climate responsibility.

Mentor’s Comment

Ten years after the Paris Agreement, the world stands at a pivotal juncture. Despite unprecedented challenges, rising global temperatures, extreme weather, and persistent dependence on fossil fuels, the Paris framework has redefined multilateral climate cooperation. This article examines how the Paris Agreement has evolved into a transformative global instrument, its tangible outcomes, India’s role, and the emerging roadmap for climate justice and transition.

Introduction

Adopted at COP21 in 2015, the Paris Agreement marked a watershed in global climate diplomacy. It sought to limit global warming well below 2°C and ideally to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. A decade later, while emissions continue to rise and devastating consequences are visible, from floods in Uttarakhand and Punjab to glacial melt in Jammu & Kashmir. The Agreement has managed to bend the trajectory of warming from a catastrophic 4°C-5°C to approximately 2°C-3°C by the century’s end. This course correction, though insufficient, underscores that collective climate action works, and that multilateralism remains the only viable path to sustainable futures.

Why in the News

The year 2025 marks a decade of the Paris Agreement, a milestone being commemorated at COP30 in Belém, Brazil, where nations are reviewing global progress toward climate neutrality by 2050.

What makes the Paris Agreement a Turning Point?

  1. Low Carbon Transition Catalyst: The Agreement has been instrumental in shifting the global economy from fossil fuels to renewable and efficient energy systems.
    • Example: Solar, wind, and hydroelectricity now anchor new job creation and green industries worldwide.
  2. End of Fossil Dominance: Ten years ago, fossil fuel use dominated energy production. Today, clean energy is mainstream, driven by technological and policy innovation.
  3. Global Policy Integration: The Paris framework integrates differentiated responsibilities, ensuring fairness for developing countries while enabling ambition from industrialised economies.

How Has International Collaboration Strengthened Climate Action?

  1. International Solar Alliance (ISA): A joint initiative by India and France, launched at COP21, represents a symbol of cooperative multilateralism in climate governance.
    • Impact: Expanded to 120+ member countries, delivering results through capacity building, training, and renewable energy transitions.
    • Example: The 8th Assembly of the ISA in 2025 reaffirmed its mission of universal solar access and climate resilience.
  2. France-India Climate Partnership: Reinforced at the COP30 session, this partnership embodies shared leadership in sustainable energy and adaptation.

How Has Climate Finance Evolved in the Last Decade?

  1. Predictable and Inclusive Finance: France and other EU members advocate for innovative, predictable climate finance through instruments like the Green Climate Fund and Loss and Damage Fund.
    • Example: One-third of France’s climate finance supports adaptation and early warning systems (CREWS).
  2. Global Solidarity Vision: At COP30, France emphasized “Global Solidarity Levers” ahead of 2030, urging equity in climate transition financing.
  3. Bridging the North-South Divide: The Paris framework institutionalized common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), making financial and technological flows more equitable.

What Are the Emerging Priorities in the Climate Transition?

  1. Natural Carbon Sinks: Ecosystems like forests, mangroves, and oceans, from the Amazon to the Sundarbans, are recognized as vital allies in carbon sequestration.
    • Policy Implication: Strengthening biodiversity conservation underpins adaptation and mitigation goals.
  2. Empowerment of Non-State Actors: Climate progress now depends on the collective efforts of local governments, businesses, and citizens to translate ambition into implementation.
    • Example: Broad-based agreements post-COP21 enable tangible, community-level results.
  3. Science and Disinformation: The IPCC’s evidence-based advocacy remains central to the fight against climate misinformation, ensuring that policy aligns with scientific truth.

What Lies Ahead?

  • Irreversibility of the Transition: The Paris transition cannot be reversed, it is now a necessity, not a choice.
  • Challenges Ahead: While adaptation and mitigation face obstacles, technological innovation, renewable investment, and inclusive policy frameworks are defining the next decade.
  • Global Cooperation Imperative: The next phase must focus on accelerating collective ambition, ensuring climate justice, and empowering vulnerable communities.

Conclusion

The Paris Agreement, despite its limitations, symbolizes the enduring power of collective resolve. The decade-long experience affirms that sustained multilateral action, grounded in fairness and scientific integrity, can bend the arc of climate destiny. The transition is not just unstoppable, it is the blueprint for humanity’s survival in the Anthropocene.

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Electoral Reforms In India

An amended Constitution Bill, its contentious issue

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People's Act

Introduction

The recently introduced Constitution (One Hundred and Thirtieth Amendment) Bill has ignited a significant constitutional and political debate. The Bill seeks to amend Articles 75, 164, and 239AA of the Constitution concerning the Union and State Councils of Ministers. It stipulates that if a Minister is arrested and detained in custody for 30 consecutive days for an alleged offence punishable with imprisonment of two years or more, they shall be removed from office by the President or Governor, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister or Chief Minister respectively.

This proposal, though seemingly procedural, has sparked controversy due to ambiguities around the word “arrest”, the discretionary power of the police, and the possible misuse of detention provisions in politically motivated cases.

Why in the News?

The Bill marks the first constitutional attempt to link a Minister’s continuation in office directly with their criminal custody status, a move never before codified in such explicit terms. It comes amidst increasing arrests of Opposition leaders under stringent laws like PMLA and UAPA, raising concerns about political misuse of arrest powers. The Bill’s intent to ensure ministerial accountability has thus clashed with fears of executive overreach and erosion of constitutional safeguards.

What are the Contentious Provisions of the Bill

  1. Arrest-Based Removal: The Bill mandates removal if a Minister is detained for 30 days for offences punishable with over two years’ imprisonment.
  2. Discretionary Interpretation: The power of arrest under Section 41 CrPC remains discretionary, a police officer may arrest, not must.
  3. Ambiguous Time Limit: The “30 consecutive days” clause lacks clarity on interim bail, custody types, or political context.
  4. Governor/President’s Role: The constitutional head acts solely on the advice of the political executive, not on judicial pronouncements, weakening neutrality.

How Does the Law Currently Treat Arrest and Detention

  1. Judicial Observations: In Joginder Kumar v. State of UP (1994), the Supreme Court ruled that arrest is not mandatory for every cognisable offence; discretion must be exercised responsibly.
  2. Statutory Provisions: Section 41 CrPC empowers arrest without warrant for offences punishable with over seven years’ imprisonment, subject to recorded reasons.
  3. Requirement of Compliance: In Satender Kumar Antil v. CBI (2022), the Supreme Court directed agencies to follow Sections 41 and 41A CrPC before arrest, ensuring proportionality.
  4. BNSS Replacement Issue: The new Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS) does not mandate arrest but allows discretion, leaving room for misuse.

Why Is the Opposition Concerned

  1. Political Misuse: The Opposition fears the amendment could become a tool for harassment, allowing governments to suspend rival Ministers on mere arrest, not conviction.
  2. Erosion of Autonomy: By relying solely on the executive’s advice, the amendment undermines institutional checks.
  3. Precedent of Selective Targeting: High-profile cases under PMLA and UAPA (where Opposition leaders remain under prolonged custody) demonstrate how arrest can substitute conviction in political contexts.
  4. Violation of Natural Justice: Removal from office before guilt is proven contradicts the principle of presumption of innocence.

What are the Judicial and Legal Concerns

  1. Triplet Test Ignored: Bail decisions require evaluation of flight risk, evidence tampering, and witness influence, but the Bill removes such proportionality.
  2. Default Bail Disregarded: Under Section 167(2) CrPC, failure to complete investigation grants bail after 60-90 days. The new Bill’s 30-day threshold ignores this safeguard.
  3. Discretionary Arrest Power: The term “arrest” remains undefined. Custody in economic offences or summons may trigger unjust removal.
  4. Unequal Treatment: The provision applies equally to Union, State, and Delhi Ministers, disregarding the distinct nature of governance in Union Territories under Article 239AA.

Could the Amendment Undermine the Principle of Rule of Law

  1. Blurred Accountability: Judicial oversight over arrests is weakened when executive advice replaces judicial findings.
  2. Undue Political Advantage: The amendment may allow ruling parties to destabilize Opposition governments through strategic arrests.
  3. Separation of Powers Risk: The President and Governor become ceremonial actors, undermining the spirit of checks and balances.
  4. Constitutional Morality at Stake: The move shifts India from rule of law to rule by law, where legality substitutes for legitimacy.

Conclusion

The Amendment Bill’s intent to ensure accountability among Ministers is commendable, but its drafting and scope risk undermining constitutional fairness. The absence of judicial oversight, vague definitions of “arrest,” and political discretion dilute the essence of the rule of law. A balanced reform must incorporate clear judicial safeguards, independent review mechanisms, and uniform arrest protocols, ensuring that no political executive is above the law, nor at its mercy.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] To what extent, in your view, the Parliament is able to ensure accountability of the executive in India?

Linkage: Executive Accountability is a recurring theme in UPSC GS Paper 2, focusing on the balance between the executive’s power and parliamentary oversight. The Constitution (130th Amendment) Bill directly links to this theme as it alters how ministerial accountability is ensured shifting it from parliamentary control to executive discretion.

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Coal and Mining Sector

The race to break China’s rare earth stranglehold

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Introduction

Rare earth minerals form the backbone of modern industries, from smartphones and electric vehicles to solar panels and missiles. Yet, China controls nearly 70% of global mining and 90% of processing, weaponizing this dominance through export restrictions and technology control. The recent spate of US-led agreements with Australia, Thailand, and Malaysia signals a tectonic shift in global supply chain strategy aimed at ending China’s monopoly.

Why in the News

The US has signed multiple agreements to diversify sourcing of rare earth minerals, a sharp contrast to past decades when Western nations relied on China’s cheap supplies. This urgency arises as China restricts exports and machinery transfers, challenging global industrial autonomy. India too has proposed a ₹7,350-crore scheme to build domestic capacity, underscoring how critical and vulnerable this resource chain has become.

China’s Rare Earth Monopoly

  1. Dominance in Production: China accounts for 70% of global rare earth mining and 90% of processing, having invested heavily since the 1990s.
  2. Weaponization of Supply Chains: China uses export restrictions and licensing to maintain strategic leverage, especially in high-tech and defense manufacturing.
  3. Environmental Cost Advantage: Western nations avoided rare earth mining due to pollution concerns, allowing China to gain mastery in low-cost extraction and processing.
  4. Technology Restriction: Beijing limits the transfer of technology and machinery, preventing rivals from catching up.

Why Rare Earths Matter

  1. Strategic Applications: Essential for EV batteries, solar panels, semiconductors, consumer electronics, and defense equipment (missiles, fighter jets, submarines).
  2. Energy Transition Role: Critical to clean energy technologies and electrification, making them central to global climate goals.
  3. Industrial Dependency: Nearly all modern batteries and chips depend on rare earth inputs, linking them to national security and supply resilience.

The US-Led Diversification Push

  1. Recent Agreements: The US signed deals with Australia, Thailand, and Malaysia to source critical minerals and reduce Chinese dependence.
  2. Strategic Vision: Seeks a transparent and diversified market by 2030, per Lowy Institute projections.
  3. Optimism vs Reality: Despite US optimism, experts predict a decade-long transition before tangible independence from China.
  4. Australia’s Role: Emerging as a long-term alternative supplier, though benefits will accrue only post-2030.

India’s Position and Challenges

  1. Limited Domestic Reserves: India lacks sufficient rare earth resources and depends on imports from South America and Africa.
  2. Policy Push: A ₹7,350-crore scheme aims to boost domestic extraction and processing capacity.
  3. Technology Constraints: China’s machinery restrictions hinder India’s expansion; Japan and Germany’s tech is available but costly.
  4. Strategic Need: India’s electronics and defense manufacturing goals hinge on securing reliable rare earth access.

Why China’s Grip Is Hard to Break

  1. Cost Advantage: China’s large-scale, low-cost production undercuts global competitors.
  2. Controlled Liberalization: By restricting but not banning exports, China maintains market share while disincentivizing new investments abroad.
  3. Decades of Lead: Its dominance results from 30 years of investment, while other nations are only beginning their efforts.
  4. Market Manipulation: Price control and selective technology transfer ensure continued dependence.

Economic and Environmental Trade-Offs

  1. High Environmental Cost: Rare earth mining involves radioactive waste and groundwater contamination.
  2. Policy Dilemma: Nations balancing green commitments against strategic autonomy face a major contradiction.
  3. Australia’s Advisory: Buyers urged to prioritize secure supply chains over the lowest available price, signaling a policy shift from cost to security.

Conclusion

Breaking China’s rare earth stranglehold is not merely an economic goal but a geopolitical necessity. It will require sustained investments, technology-sharing frameworks, and environmental innovation. While the US, India, and allies are recalibrating, China’s cost, experience, and ecosystem advantages mean its dominance may persist until at least 2030. The world’s clean energy and defense ambitions hinge on how successfully nations can build resilient, transparent, and diversified critical mineral supply chains.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy.

Linkage: Rare earths are critical for renewable and clean energy technologies (e.g., EVs, solar, wind). This question relates to energy diversification and sustainability, highlighting material dependencies that influence India’s clean energy choices.

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WTO and India

China’s WTO complaint against India’s PLI Schemes

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

Why in the News?

China has lodged a formal complaint at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) alleging that India’s Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) batteries, Automobile and Auto Components, and Electric Vehicles (EVs) violate WTO subsidy rules.

About the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme:

  • Overview: Launched in 2020 under the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative to strengthen domestic manufacturing and global competitiveness.
  • Objectives:
    • Provides financial incentives based on incremental sales of manufactured goods over a base year.
    • Aims to attract global investment, enhance exports, create jobs, and integrate MSMEs into value chains.
  • Coverage: Covers 14 strategic sectors, including electronics, autos, solar modules, textiles, and pharmaceuticals.
  • Incentive Design: Incentives are non-export linked, based on domestic sales and value addition achieved within India.

PLI Schemes Challenged by China:

  1. PLI for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) Batteries: Incentivises giga-scale battery manufacturing with 25% Domestic Value Addition (DVA) requirement.
  2. PLI for Automobiles and Auto Components: Promotes Advanced Automotive Technology (AAT) products with 50% DVA target.
  3. PLI for Electric Vehicles (EVs): Encourages global EV manufacturers to establish production bases in India.

Issues Raised by China at WTO:

  • Complaint: In October 2025, China filed a case at the World Trade Organization (WTO) claiming that India’s PLI schemes violate global subsidy and trade rules.
  • Core Allegation – DVA Linkage:
    • The Domestic Value Addition (DVA) requirement in the PLI scheme, where incentives depend on how much of a product’s value is created within India, is the main point of dispute.
    • China argues that by linking financial incentives to DVA thresholds, India is indirectly forcing firms to use locally made components instead of imported ones.
    • This, China claims, acts as a “local content requirement”, which WTO rules prohibit because it discriminates against imported goods, especially Chinese batteries, auto parts, and electronic components.
  • Why China Objects to DVA:
    • According to China, the PLI design discourages import of foreign components, making it harder for Chinese products to compete in the Indian market.
    • It considers DVA-based incentives as “import substitution subsidies”, banned under the WTO’s Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM).
    • China also claims this approach distorts trade, reduces fair competition, and restricts market access for foreign suppliers.
  • Summary of the Dispute:
    • China’s view: DVA = hidden import restriction → violates WTO rules.
    • India’s view: DVA = measure of domestic value creation → fully WTO-compliant.

WTO Rules Cited by China:

  • Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM) Agreement:
    • Article 1 – Defines subsidy as a financial benefit given by a government.
    • Article 3.1(b) – Bans subsidies that depend on using domestic goods over imports.
  • GATT 1994 (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade):
    • Article III.4 – Ensures equal treatment for imported and domestic goods.
  • TRIMs (Trade-Related Investment Measures) Agreement:
    • Article 2.1 – Forbids policies that violate national treatment.
    • Annex – Lists Local Content Requirements (LCRs) as WTO-inconsistent.
  • China argues that India’s PLI incentives linked to DVA break all three rules and act as local content conditions.

India’s Response:

  • WTO Compliance: India says PLI is WTO-compliant and does not force local sourcing.
  • Clarification: DVA only measures economic value created in India, like labour, R&D, and innovation, not just use of local parts.
  • Open for Global Firms: Foreign companies can join and freely import materials; PLI only rewards domestic value creation.
  • Legal Justification: India cites GATT Article XX, allowing policies for environmental or developmental goals, especially for green tech like EVs and batteries.
  • Policy Standpoint: India argues that industrial subsidies are a sovereign tool to fix trade imbalances and promote sustainable growth.
  • WTO Procedure: India will first hold consultations with China (first step of dispute). If unresolved, a WTO panel may be formed, but no ruling will take effect soon as the Appellate Body is non-functional since 2019.
  • Practical Impact: India can continue the PLI schemes while the dispute is pending.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
Statement I: India accounts for 3.2% of global exports of goods.
Statement II: Many local companies and some foreign companies operating in India have taken advantage of India’s ‘Production-linked Incentive’ scheme.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct *

 

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Coal and Mining Sector

[pib] Koyla Shakti Dashboard

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Union Minister of Coal and Mines has launched two major digital governance platforms, the KOYLA SHAKTI Dashboard and the Coal Land Acquisition, Management, and Payment (CLAMP) Portal, through video conference in New Delhi.

About Koyla Shakti Dashboard:

  • Overview: It is developed by the Ministry of Coal as a unified digital platform for coal sector management.
  • Purpose: Integrates the entire coal value chain, from production and logistics to dispatch and consumption, into a single real-time digital interface.
  • Key Features:
    • Data Integration: Consolidates inputs from coal PSUs, Indian Railways, ports, power utilities, and state mining departments, enabling end-to-end visibility across operations.
    • Real-Time Analytics: Employs AI-based predictive tools for demand forecasting, logistics optimisation, and supply chain efficiency.
    • Governance Impact: Enhances transparency, accountability, and data-driven decision-making through live dashboards and standardised performance indicators.
    • Utility for Policymakers: Provides a decision-support system for resource allocation, capacity utilisation, and production planning.
  • Sectoral Benefits: Reduces bottlenecks, improves coordination, and facilitates efficient coal dispatch and monitoring.
  • Reform Milestone: Marks a major step in India’s transition toward digital governance and operational transparency in the extractive sector.

About CLAMP Portal:

  • Overview: It is a centralised digital system to manage land acquisition, compensation, and R&R (Rehabilitation & Resettlement) in coal-bearing regions.
  • Developer: Implemented by the Ministry of Coal to streamline land-related processes for public sector coal companies.
  • Objective: Integrates land records, ownership details, compensation workflows, and payment tracking into one secure interface.
  • Key Features:
    • Transparency & Accountability: Enables real-time tracking of land acquisition progress and compensation disbursements, reducing disputes and delays.
    • Institutional Coordination: Acts as a single-window system linking coal PSUs, state revenue departments, and district administrations.
    • Efficiency Gains: Eliminates manual paperwork, ensures timely approvals, and improves compliance with land and rehabilitation laws.
    • Public-Centric Governance: Prioritises justice, equity, and procedural clarity for affected communities through digital grievance redressal and payment verification.
[UPSC 2022] In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller’s Organization (CCO) ?
1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
3. It hears any objection to the Government’s notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time.
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3* (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 4

 

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Panchayati Raj Institutions: Issues and Challenges

[pib] Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS) Initiative

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2:

Why in the News?

The cc, in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, has launched the Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS) in New Delhi.

About the Model Youth Gram Sabha (MYGS):

  • Overview: Introduced on 30 October 2025 as a joint initiative of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Ministry of Education (Department of School Education and Literacy), and Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
  • Objective: Aims to promote public participation and youth engagement in grassroots democracy through simulated Gram Sabha sessions in schools.
  • Educational Integration: Designed under the National Education Policy, 2020, combining civic education with local self-governance to instil values of democracy, accountability, transparency, and leadership.
  • Implementation Scale: To be rolled out across 1,000+ schools, including Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs), Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRSs), and State Government Schools.

Back2Basics: Gram Sabha

  • Overview: The Gram Sabha, under Article 243(b) of the Constitution, is the basic unit of direct democracy in the Panchayati Raj system.
  • Composition: Comprises all village residents aged 18 or above whose names appear on the electoral rolls.
  • Function: Central to village development planning, social audits, and Gram Panchayat accountability.
  • Meetings: Convened 2–4 times annually under State Panchayati Raj Acts, commonly on 26 January, 1 May, 15 August, and 2 October.
  • Authority: Organised by the Panchayat Secretary (Gram Sevak) with approval of the Sarpanch (village head).
  • Quorum Rule: Requires participation of 10% of total members or at least 50 villagers, notified five days in advance.
  • Decision-Making: Approves budgets, welfare schemes, beneficiary lists, and development priorities; no major Panchayat action is valid without its consent.
  • Purpose: Ensures public participation, transparency, and self-governance (Swaraj) through collective village-level decision-making.
  • Democratic Essence: Serves as the cornerstone of rural democracy, empowering citizens to shape governance and development outcomes directly.

 

[UPSC 2017] Local self-government can be best explained as an exercise in:

Options: (a) Federalism (b) Democratic decentralisation * (c) Administrative delegation (d) Direct democracy

 

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[pib] Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Why in the News?

The Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) has announced major reforms aimed at enhancing transparency, efficiency, and inclusivity in the national rehabilitation system.

About the Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI):

  • Overview: It is a statutory body established under the Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, and came into statutory force on 22 June 1993.
  • Vision: To build a skilled, ethical, and inclusive rehabilitation workforce aligned with India’s disability rights framework and United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) commitments.
  • Nodal Agency: Functions under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India.
  • Historical Background: Initially set up as a registered society in 1986, later granted statutory powers to regulate rehabilitation education and practice nationwide.
  • Regulatory Role: Acts as the national authority for training, education, and certification of professionals working in rehabilitation and special education.
  • Central Rehabilitation Register (CRR): Maintains and updates the CRR, a national database of all certified rehabilitation professionals in India.
  • Scope of Coverage: Regulates 16 professional categories including special educators, audiologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, and clinical psychologists.

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