Archives: News

India to Freeze Negotiations with Pakistan on Indus Treaty

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

Why in the News?

The Permanent Indus Commission meetings are on hold until India and Pakistan talk about updating the 64-year-old Indus Water Treaty. The last meeting took place in May 2022.

What is the Indus Treaty?

The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), signed on September 19, 1960, is a water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan, mediated by the World Bank.
The treaty allocates the waters of the Indus River system, which includes three eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) to India and three western rivers (Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum) to Pakistan.
This framework was established to manage the sharing of water resources in a region where water scarcity is a significant concern due to agricultural demands and population growth.

Features of Treaty:

Permanent Indus Commission: The treaty established the Permanent Indus Commission, which consists of representatives from both nations tasked with resolving disputes and facilitating communication regarding water management.
Dispute Resolution: The treaty includes mechanisms for dispute resolution, allowing for consultation with neutral experts or arbitration through international courts if disagreements arise.

Why did the Indian government opt to modify and review the Treaty?

Changed Demographics: India emphasizes that significant changes in population demographics necessitate a reassessment of water-sharing obligations under the treaty.
Environmental Considerations: The need to accelerate clean energy development (Hydro power electricity) to meet emission targets has been highlighted as a reason for modifying the treaty’s provisions, reflecting broader environmental concerns.
Security Issues: Persistent cross-border terrorism has been cited as a factor undermining India’s ability to utilize its rights under the treaty fully.
Perceived Imbalance: Analysts in India have described the treaty as “one-sided,” arguing that it disproportionately favors Pakistan given India’s larger population and growing water needs.
- They believe India’s leverage over western rivers should be enhanced, especially during heightened tensions.

Way forward:

Renegotiation of Terms: India and Pakistan should engage in bilateral talks to update the Indus Waters Treaty, reflecting modern challenges like demographic changes, energy needs, and security concerns, while ensuring fair water distribution.
Enhanced Cooperative Framework: Strengthen the role of the Permanent Indus Commission by introducing regular environmental and security assessments, and improving communication to prevent conflicts and ensure sustainable water management.

Mains PYQ:

Q Present an account of the Indus Water Treaty and examine its ecological, economic and political implications in the context of changing bilateral relations. (UPSC IAS/2016)

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

ISRO Missions and Discoveries

TRISHNA Mission

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Philippe Baptiste, head of the French Space Agency, talked about the joint India-France “TRISHNA Mission.”

TRISHNA Mission:

	Details
Overview	A joint Indo-French Earth observation satellite project developed by ISRO and CNES (French Space Agency). Acronym for *“Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High-resolution Natural resource Assessment” (TRISHNA Mission)***
Launch Year	Targeted for 2026.
Mission Lifespan	Designed for a 5-year operational life.
Primary Objectives	• Monitor water and energy budgets of the continental biosphere. • Assess evapotranspiration for efficient water management. • Improve agricultural water productivity and assist in irrigation water management. • Provide high-resolution observations of water quality in coastal and inland waters. • Assess urban heat islands and detect heat anomalies.
Payloads	• Thermal Infrared (TIR) Payload: Provided by CNES, this sensor maps surface temperature and emissivity in high resolution. • Visible-Near Infrared-Short Wave Infrared (VNIR-SWIR) Payload: Developed by ISRO, this sensor uses seven spectral bands for detailed mapping of surface reflectance.
Orbit and Spatial Resolution	• TRISHNA will operate in a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 761 km. • Spatial resolution: 57 meters for land and coastal areas, 1 km for ocean and polar regions.
Application and Significance	• Supports water resource management, agriculture, and urban planning through precise data on water stress, crop productivity, and urban heat islands. • Enhances climate resilience by tracking droughts, evapotranspiration, and permafrost changes. • Contributes to global environmental initiatives like GEOGLAM and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by providing key agricultural and climate variables.

PYQ:

[2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development?

[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?

(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India

(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II

(d) A space telescope developed by India

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

Global Geological And Climatic Events

The Volcanic Island of Rapa Nui

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World’S Physical Geography

Rapa Nui

Why in the News?

The Volcanic Island of Rapa Nui (also known as Easter Island) has always been mysterious due to its harsh geography and iconic Moai statues.

About Rapa Nui Island

	Details
Location	• Situated in the *southeastern Pacific Ocean, Rapa Nui is part of Polynesia and a territory of Chile. • One of the most remote islands, about 3,500 km from Chile*.
Size	• Covers an area of 160 sq. km.
Geographical details	• The island has a volcanic origin, featuring lava-covered terrain and rocky soil. • Notable volcanoes include Terevaka, Poike, and Rano Kau. • Tropical climate with average temperatures ranging between 18°C and 28°C. • Rainfall occurs mostly in the winter months.
Moai Statues	• Famous for over 900 *moai* statues, some as tall as 40 ft and weighing 75 tonnes. • These statues were built between the 13th and 16th centuries to honor revered ancestors. • Carved from volcanic rock and transported across great distances.
Discovery	• Discovered by European sailors on Easter Sunday, 1722, which gave it the name Easter Island. • The island had been settled centuries earlier by Polynesian explorers who navigated thousands of kilometers of ocean.
Significance of New Findings	• Recent studies, including the use of AI analysis of satellite images, have debunked earlier theories of ecological collapse. • Genetic studies show Native American ancestry before European contact, indicating earlier interactions with South America.

PYQ:

[2018] Consider the following statements:

1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.

2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.

3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 3

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

Rural Infrastructure Schemes

Pradhan Mantri-Janjatiya Unnat Gram Abhiyan (PMJUGA)

Schemes | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet approved the “Pradhan Mantri Janjatiya Unnat Gram Abhiyan” with a total outlay of ₹79,156 crore (₹56,333 crore as central share and ₹22,823 crore as state share).

About Pradhan Mantri Janjatiya Unnat Gram Abhiyan (PMJUGA)

	Details
Objective	Improve socio-economic conditions of *tribal communities* through scheme convergence.
Outlay	₹79,156 crore (₹56,333 crore central; ₹22,823 crore state share).
Coverage	63,000 villages; 5 crore people in 549 districts across 30 States/UTs.
Focus Areas	Housing, healthcare, education, skill development, livelihoods, infrastructure.
Implementation	25 interventions by 17 ministries; monitored via PM Gati Shakti Portal.
Social Component	Pucca houses (PMAY), water supply (Jal Jeevan Mission), road and mobile connectivity, education, healthcare. Increase GER, build tribal hostels, reduce IMR & MMR through Mobile Medical Units.
Economic Push	Tribal Home Stays, Sickle Cell Disease management (Centers of Competence), 100 Tribal Multipurpose Marketing Centres (TMMCs) for tribal product marketing.
Sustainable Livelihood	Support 22 Lakh Forest Rights Act (FRA) patta holders for forest rights and sustainable agriculture, animal husbandry, and allied activities.
Special Initiatives	Tribal Home Stays, SCD management, and establishment of Tribal Multipurpose Marketing Centres (TMMC).
Eligibility	Tribal-majority villages: 500+ population (plains), 250+ (NE & Hill States), 100+ (LWE districts based on Census 2011).

PYQ:

[2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006?

(a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

(b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj

(d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs

[2017] What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence addressing discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)?

[2016] Why are the tribals in India referred to as ‘the Scheduled Tribes’? Indicate the major provisions enshrined in the Constitution of India for their upliftment.

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Chandrayaan-4, Venus orbiter gets approval from Cabinet

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

The Union Cabinet approved the expansion of the Chandrayaan-4 mission, Venus Orbiter Mission (Shukrayaan Misison), Gaganyaan, the development of India’s first space station (the Bharatiya Antariksh Station), and NextGen launch vehicles.

About Chandrayaan-4 Mission

Chandrayaan-4 is the fourth mission in India’s Chandrayaan program (2003).
The mission is currently under conceptualisation and expected to launch around 2027.
Aims: To develop technology for a successful moon landing and ensure a safe return to Earth.
The mission will be launched in two phases onboard two LVM3 rockets.
It will collect lunar samples for analysis on Earth.

About Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM)

The VOM, also called Shukrayaan-1, is an upcoming ISRO mission targeting a 2028 launch.
The mission aims to study Venus’ surface, atmosphere, volcanic activity, and solar wind interactions with its ionosphere.
It will have a mission duration of 4 years.
The spacecraft will operate in an elliptical orbit, with distances of 60,000 km at apoapsis and 500 km at periapsis.
Its payload has a capacity of 100 kg, is powered by 500 watts, and will feature Indian and international instruments for comprehensive analysis.
For the mission’s payload and technology, collaborations with NASA, CNES (France), and Russia have been established.

PYQ:

[2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO:

is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

Fertilizer Sector reforms – NBS, bio-fertilizers, Neem coating, etc.

Ammonium Nitrate imports cause concern

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Ammonium Nitrate (AN) imports from Russia have sharply increased affecting domestic fertilizer companies in India.
- The import of Ammonium Nitrate is concerning due to increased dependence on foreign supply, price disparity impacting domestic industries, and potential risks to national energy and security.

What is Ammonium Nitrate?

Ammonium Nitrate (NH₄NO₃) is a nitrogen-rich, white, crystalline chemical compound.
It is soluble in water and commonly used in various industries.
Uses:
- It is widely used as a fertilizer in agriculture.
- It serves as a component for anaesthetic gases and cold packs.
- It is also a key ingredient in commercial explosives used for mining and construction.
Ammonium nitrate is classified as an oxidizing substance under Grade 5.1 by the United Nations.
India’s Regulations:
- AN is regulated under The Ammonium Nitrate Rules, 2012, and its manufacture or use requires a license.
- The Explosives Act, 1884 defines ammonium nitrate as any compound with more than 45% AN by weight.
- Storage Restrictions: Storing large quantities of AN in populated areas is illegal in India.
- For manufacturing, companies need an industrial license under the Industrial Development and Regulation Act, 1951.

Why is it a Cause of Concern?

Ammonium Nitrate is a primary component in explosive mixtures like ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil).
Though not explosive on its own, it becomes highly dangerous when mixed with detonators like RDX or TNT.
It has been used in Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) by terrorist groups.
Accidents involving AN, like the Beirut port explosion in 2020, have raised serious concerns about its storage and handling.
Its widespread use in fertilizers leads to concerns about environmental impact, especially when mishandled.
Improper storage in populated areas can result in devastating accidents, which is why stringent regulations are in place to control its use, storage, and transport.

PYQ:

[2015] What can be the impact of excessive/inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?

1. Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can occur.

2. Increase in the acidity of soil can take place.

3. Leaching of nitrate to the ground-water can occur.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 3 only

(b) 2 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

J&K – The issues around the state

Nature of J&K Assembly

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Why in the News?

The ongoing first phase of polling for the J&K Assembly significantly marks the first assembly election since 2019’s (Article 370 abrogation), resulting in a fundamentally changed Assembly.

Structural changes made during the J&K Reorganisation Act of 2019:

Statehood to Union Territory: The Act downgraded Jammu and Kashmir from a state to a Union Territory (UT) with a legislature, while Ladakh became a UT without a legislature.
Abrogation of Article 370: The special status granted under Article 370 was removed, extending the Indian Constitution and laws to Jammu and Kashmir in their entirety.

Importance of Election in Jammu and Kashmir:

Restoration of Democratic Governance: After the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019, Jammu and Kashmir lost its statehood and was reorganized as a Union Territory. Elections are crucial to restore democratic governance and allow people to elect their representatives.
Political Representation: The elections offer citizens the opportunity to choose their leaders and voice their concerns, ensuring political representation at a regional level within the framework of the Union Territory.
Restoring Normalcy and Stability: Conducting elections in the region is seen as a step toward restoring political stability and normalcy after a period of uncertainty and tension following the constitutional changes in 2019.

Powers of the J&K Assembly:

Legislative Powers: The J&K Legislative Assembly can make laws on subjects in the State List, except for public order and police, which are under the LG’s jurisdiction. It can also legislate on subjects in the Concurrent List, provided the laws are not repugnant to central legislation.
Financial Bills: Any financial bill or amendment in J&K requires the prior recommendation of the LG before being introduced in the Assembly. This ensures that significant financial decisions are under the control of the central government.

Powers of the Lieutenant Governor of J&K:

Discretionary Powers: The LG has the authority to act independently on subjects outside the Assembly’s purview, such as public order, police, bureaucracy, and the Anti-Corruption Bureau.
Final Authority: The LG’s decisions on whether a subject falls under his discretion are final and cannot be challenged in court. This gives the LG significant control over governance in the UT.
Appointment Powers: The LG has the power to appoint the Advocate General, law officers, and approve prosecutions, further enhancing his administrative role.

Conclusion: The structural changes in Jammu and Kashmir post-2019 have reshaped its governance, enhancing the Lieutenant Governor’s powers. Elections are essential for restoring democratic representation, ensuring regional participation, and promoting stability after the abrogation of Article 370 and state reorganization.

Mains PYQ:

Q To what extent is Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, bearing marginal note “Temporary provision with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir”, temporary? Discuss the future prospects of this provision in the context of Indian polity. (UPSC IAS/2016)

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

Power asymmetry between China and Russia

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

Due to sanctions put by the USA, affected Russia’s usual supply and pressured its domestic production eventually led to China’s share of Russia’s imports surged from 32% in 2021 to 89% in 2023.

What is the issue over the dual hegemony of the dollar and the SWIFT messaging system?

Effect of Ukraine War: Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the U.S. and its allies froze $300 billion of Russia’s foreign exchange reserves and imposed a SWIFT ban on Russian banks involved in dual-use goods. This showed the weaponization of the U.S.-led financial system.
China’s Fears: China, with about $770 billion of its reserves held in U.S. treasuries, fears similar financial penalties if tensions with the West escalate.
Dual Hegemony: Both Russia and China share concerns over the dominance of the U.S. dollar in global transactions and the influence of the SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication) system, which is integral to cross-border payments.
- Both countries have tried to de-dollarize their economies and promote alternative payment systems like China’s Cross-Border Interbank Payment System (CIPS).
- However, CIPS is still far from challenging the dominance of SWIFT, and their efforts to create alternative financial frameworks have not seen significant global success.

About SWIFT system:

Founded in Belgium (1973), SWIFT is overseen by the G-10 central banks.
The SWIFT system is a global financial messaging system used by banks and financial institutions to send and receive information about financial transactions securely.
Russia and China have both developed alternative systems to SWIFT.

What is the issue over the dual hegemony of the dollar and the SWIFT messaging system?

Trade Dependence: Russia has a minor trade surplus with China, but the trade relationship is imbalanced: China represents 30.4% of Russia’s exports and 36% of its imports, while Russia is only 3% of China’s exports.
Energy Dominance: Over 70% of Russia’s exports to China are fossil fuels, making it vulnerable to changes in China’s energy needs.
High-priority goods: In 2023, 89% of Russia’s high-priority goods were imported from China, compared to 32% in 2021.

What does it mean for India?

Strategic Implications: The deepening partnership between China and Russia has raised concerns in India. Russia, traditionally a close partner to India, now shares a strong relationship with China, India’s primary geopolitical adversary.
Trade Disparity: India’s trade with Russia remains relatively small compared to the rapidly growing China-Russia trade. This economic disparity limits Moscow’s autonomy in maintaining a balanced relationship between India and China.
Russia’s Diminishing Autonomy: Given the economic asymmetry and Russia’s increasing reliance on China, especially for critical goods and financial support, it has less leverage to act independently in its relations with India.

Way forward:

Diversify Strategic Partnerships: India should strengthen its ties with other global powers, including the U.S., the EU, and emerging economies, to reduce over-reliance on Russia for defense and energy.
Expand Domestic Capabilities: India must invest in boosting its indigenous defence and energy sectors to minimize dependence on foreign partners. Strengthening self-reliance will help India maintain strategic autonomy amid shifting global alliances.

Mains PYQ:

Q The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain. (UPSC IAS/2021)

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

A climate crisis agenda remains urgent

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

Although voters voiced concerns about the climate crisis, it was overlooked during the Lok Sabha election campaign.

2023 Climate Targets of Indian Government

Renewable Energy Goals: India aims to achieve 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030, with a target for 50% of its total energy needs to come from renewable sources.
Emissions Goals: The updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) set a goal to reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 45% compared to 2005 levels by 2030.
Carbon Sink Targets: India plans to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion metric tons of CO2 equivalent through enhanced forest and tree cover by 2030.
Net Zero Commitment: Aiming for net zero emissions by 2070, India has committed to significant reductions in projected emissions, including a pledge to reduce one billion tonnes of emissions from now until 2030.
- As of late 2023, India has already achieved a cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources at approximately 43.81%, ahead of its initial targets.

Why is addressing the climate crisis an urgent priority for policymakers and the global community?

The Paris Agreement includes a commitment for developed countries to mobilize $100 billion per year by 2020 to support climate action in developing countries. This target was extended until 2025, with new financial goals.
- The next five years are crucial for India’s climate action to meet its ambitious 2030 targets, as the Roadmap for 2025 Climate Change Funds are about to end.
India’s heavy dependence on coal, with clean energy contributing only 22% of the electricity mix, underscores the need for an urgent transition.
Immediate attention is required to manage heat stress, improve air quality, handle waste, and enhance energy efficiency.

What specific actions or policies can be implemented?

Enhanced Carbon Markets: Launching the ‘India Carbon Market’ in 2026 aims to help achieve Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and could become the world’s largest emissions trading system by 2030.
Mitigating Pollutants: Focus on reducing CO2 and short-lived superpollutants like methane, black carbon, and hydrofluorocarbons, which have significant short-term warming effects.
- Integrating specific treaties into the Paris Agreement, similar to the Montreal Protocol, with a new treaty targeting methane reductions by 2030 would be helpful.
Financial Incentives: Developing financial mechanisms and nuanced carbon trading approaches to encourage faster climate action and effective pollutant management.

What challenges or barriers exist in the implementation of a comprehensive climate crisis agenda?

Governance and Coordination: Need for a Constitutional nodal authority to ensure coordinated climate action across various government levels and stakeholders.
Economic and Social Factors: Rising temperatures and associated crises like unemployment and high living costs contribute to public disengagement from climate issues.
Political and Voter Engagement: The 2024 Lok Sabha election’s lack of focus on climate issues highlights the challenge of integrating climate action into mainstream political agendas and addressing voter concerns.

Way forward:

Create a Constitutional Nodal Authority: Form a central body with the authority to oversee, coordinate, and enforce climate policies across various government levels, ensuring effective and unified action.
Prioritize Climate Issues in Political Platforms: Make climate action a central theme in political campaigns and public discussions to boost awareness, engagement, and support for climate policies and initiatives.

Mains PYQ:

Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

COP29 is set to be hosted by Azerbaijan from November 11 to 22. It has a central focus on finalising a agreement on Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF) particularly for the post-2025 period.

Proposals by Azerbaijan:

Azerbaijan has included key proposals in the COP29 Action Agenda, such as:

Increasing global energy storage capacity by six times by 2030.
Promoting a global market for green hydrogen.
Ensuring the carbon footprint from digitisation and data centres is kept to a minimum.

About the Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF):

The CFAF will be capitalised with contributions from fossil fuel producing countries
It will be headquartered with its secretariat in Baku, Azerbaijan.
It will rely on voluntary contributions from fossil-fuel producing countries and companies.
Azerbaijan, a major petroleum economy, will make the first contribution to kickstart the fund.
Fossil-fuel producing countries and companies will have the option to make annual contributions, either as a fixed sum or based on production volumes.
The funds will be divided equally:
- 50% will go toward climate projects in developing countries.
- 50% will support developing nations in implementing national climate action plans.
The fund will become operational once it reaches a minimum corpus of $1 billion.
At least 10 countries must commit to being shareholders for the fund to start.
20% of the revenues generated from investments will be deposited in a Rapid Response Funding Facility (2R2F) providing highly concessional and grant-based support.

What did Paris Agreement of 2015 said on Climate Finance?

Under the Paris Agreement (2015), developed countries are obligated to raise at least $100 billion annually to aid developing nations in their fight against climate change.
- This amount is expected to increase after 2025.
Negotiations have been slow, and countries are still debating the quantum of finance that industrialised nations should provide.

PYQ:

[2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
It aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2ºC or even 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels.
Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor

Join the Community

Join us across Social Media platforms.